



Ilii 





LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



DDQlTbDSSa? 






■;N-J^:^<S*":-::i*:;:'vt:1^ 



'mi. 






n 



ATTENTION AND 
INTEREST 

A STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY AND 
EDUCATION 



BY 

FELIX ARNOLD, Ph.D. 



Mt^ tlot& 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1910 
AU rights reserved 



V 



0^ 



Copyright 1910 

bt the macmillan company 



Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1910 



THS MASON-HENRY frksb 

SYRACUSE, NEW TORK 



(gGi.A25(o.^ 36 



' Preface 

The present essay on the psychology of 
attention and interest is an attempt to clarify and 
arrange the many facts that have been brought 
to light by numerous experiments in the psycho- 
logical laboratories. I have felt myself bound, 
not to uphold any special theory or school, but to 
present the facts as they seem to be. The 
exposition of the subject under the categories, 
'description,' 'illustration,' 'development,' 'ex- 
planation,' and 'definition,' is in line with the 
more modern and scientific presentation as seen 
in books on physiology, embryology, zoology, 
medicine, etc. Some may differ with me as re- 
gards the exact demarcation of the different 
aspects of the subject. The facts, however, are 
not changed because of any scheme of presenta- 
tion. My chief obligations are to J. M. Baldwin, 
J. McKeen Cattell, E. L. Thorndike, E. B. 
Tichener, F. J. E. Woodbridge, and other ex- 
ponents of the scientific attitude towards facts 
and the presentation of facts. 

Felix Aenold 

New York City. 



CONTENTS 

PART I— ATTENTION 

CHAPTER I 
The Given Situation in Attention ... 3 

CHAPTER II 
The Objective Aspect of Attention ... 25 

CHAPTER III 
The Psychophysicai> Aspect of Attention . 96 

CHAPTER IV 
The Physiological Aspect of Attention . . 136 

CHAPTER V 
Recapitulation . 176 

PART II— INTEREST 

CHAPTER VI 

► The Motor Aspect of Interest . . . . 183 

CHAPTER Vll 
The Ideal Aspect of Interest .... 208 

CHAPTER VIII 
Recapitulation 224! 



viii CONTENTS 

PART III— EDUCATIOlSr 

CHAPTER IX 
Attention in the Classroom . . . . , . 231 

CHAPTER X 
Interest in the Classroom 254 

INDEXES 

Index of Names 267 

Index of Subjects 270 



PART I 
ATTENTION 



Part I 
Attention 



CHAPTER I 

THE GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

1. The Subject-object Relation. In a 
loose and popular manner, the object, as differ- 
ent from the subject is readily recognised. The 
man who picks up a book to read, the woman who 
selects goods for a dress, the child who plays with 
the toy, each, in a vague way, distinguishes an 
object which exists apart from the self. There 
may be present no intensive analysis of the 
nature of such existence, or of the meaning of 
the relationship, but for the practical purposes of 
usage and experience, the object, as existing 
apart from the subject, has a more or less utili- 
tarian or esthetic value. In scientific research 
and laboratory experimentation a more rigid in- 
terpretation of 'object' is made. Close analysis 
is necessary sharply to define exactly what is 
'subject' and what 'object' in a given situation, 
and every effort is made to eliminate the personal 
equation, emotional bias, illusion, or other per- 



4 ATTENTION AND INTEEEST 

sonal factors. The astronomer limits his field to 
a portion of the heavens, the botanist busies him- 
self with a bud, a seed, a root fibre, the geologist 
restricts his activity during a given investigation 
to some strata, rock formation, or what not, and 
so with investigators in other lines. Some situa- 
tion is selected and treated as an object apart 
from the self. Many situations in the course of 
an investigation are so considered and made the 
object of close study. 

The psychologist differs in nowise from other 
scientific investigators. In his work he deals 
with specific situations, and examines, interprets, 
analyses, and reasons much like scientists in other 
fields. His point of attack may be diiFerent, his 
interpretation may deal with qualitative or with 
quantitative aspects differing from those se- 
lected by a botanist or a physicist, but his basis is 
much like theirs. If his work is to have any 
value, it must be based on situations which have 
a concrete filling of some kind, on objects which 
are more or less definite, on situations which, 
while they are under investigation, must be con- 
sidered apart from the self which is concerned 
with the experimentation. The scientific point 
of view is one which is recognised by the psycholo- 
gist, but which is seldom held by cultured work- 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 5 

ers in other fields. The mind is usually considered 
by such as an ethereal will-o'-the-wisp, a spirit 
which appears, now here, now there, and which 
is so evanescent that one can speculate about it 
with safety, draw deductive conclusions, and 
construct hypotheses which can not be tested in 
concrete situations. That popular opinion is 
wrong in this connection will be readily under- 
stood by one who has seen the laboratory study 
of mental processes. Not the mind, but some 
situation is studied with special reference to con- 
sciousness. A given field is made the center of 
attention, tested according to some definite 
method, and studied in an inductive manner. 

In general, the subject-object relation is one, 
which, from long habit, is accepted as a matter of 
course in most fields. This dual relationship fits 
in with the nature of things, stands the test of 
experience, of application, of work, and is be- 
lieved in, regardless of metaphysical or other 
disquisitions to the contrary. From this point 
of view all else stands opposed to the self. Self 
and the rest of the universe constitute the whole. 
No doubt the rest of the universe exists for the 
self as an 'other' of related parts, as a whole 
which is affected by every act of the individual. 
In actual practice so extended an 'other' is nar- 



6 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

rowed down to some definite situation whicH can 
be manipulated and controlled. In a piece of 
work, a laboratory experiment, for example, the 
individual is not immediately concerned with the 
rest of the universe. He may affect it, his actions 
may result in a redistribution of relationships, 
but this is no direct concern of his. He is usually 
concerned with only what is under his immediate 
control. The rest of the universe is not so much 
'object,' as 'objective' to him. The object is 
rather the point of junction between the indi- 
vidual and the rest of the system, between himself 
and all that is 'objective.' Some limited portion 
constitutes for the time the point of junction be- 
tween the individual and what is objective. The 
individual localises his efforts and restricts the 
extent of his control. 

2. The Point of Junction. 'Point of junc- 
tion' corresponds loosely to what is called 'object,' 
as, for example, the material in an experiment, a 
place of business, a reading room in a library, a 
tool, or what not. Different kinds of such ob- 
jects, however, may be distinguished. 

(a) Real. As one looks before one and con- 
siders what one sees, the object in such a case is 
visual and somewhat extended. If touch and 
motor control enter in the determination of the 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 7 

object, the field at once becomes extremely nar- 
rowed. If other senses are involved, the field 
receives a richer content and means more to the 
individual who is in control. The quality and 
the extent of the point of junction thus depend 
upon the senses which are involved in the experi- 
ences. Any sense may mediate a point of junc- 
tion. We may have a visual field, an auditory or 
a tactile field. So, too, a situation may be deter- 
mined by all together. Usually several of the 
senses are called into play. An object is seized, 
tested, taken apart, put under the microscope, 
and controlled in as many ways as possible. 

What is before one at any moment, what exists 
as a single pulse Of apprehension, therefore, can 
not always be said to constitute a situation given 
in full. To be given in toto^ to have the feel of 
reality, a situation must allow of reactive adjust- 
ment, must be under some kind of motor control. 
Only as one is before a situation which can be 
manipulated and reconstructed in a practical 
way, only as one can test the visual field by active 
selection and adjustment, can it be considered 
as basic and real. An essential aspect of a basic 
situation is this impelling and necessary character 
which it receives through touch and motor con- 
trol. It may be denied metaphysically, it may 



8 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

be doubted philosophically, but practically, 
doubt or denial means destruction. For ex- 
ample, tentative denial of a stone wall may result 
in a bruise or other injury. Scholastic disbelief 
must be swept aside when actual contact is 
effected. Contrariwise, belief is never so strong 
as when motor control reinforces visual appre- 
hension. 

The more direct and immediate control is pos- 
sible when the situation is beneath one's feet or 
under one's hands. The various junctions, 
visual, auditory, tactile, etc., can then be bound 
together by the motor. Such a limited field is 
further widened by means which will facilitate 
motor contact. The microscope enlarges the 
visual field without bringing it outside of direct 
motor control, the railroad and the telegraph 
enable one to make as many points of contact as 
possible within a given time, touch and motor 
control are aided by delicate instruments, machin- 
ery does work which the hands can not do, and 
so on. Where no means exist for the realisation 
of motor control, a situation must remain incom- 
plete, may, in fact, be considered a chimera. The 
pot of gold at the other end of the rainbow, for 
example, has still to be felt as a reality. 

(b) Ideal. In an ideal, schematic, and repre- 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 9 

sentative sort of way a situation may assume a 
form somewhat removed from the original. An 
outhne, plan, picture, word, image, idea, thought, 
may take the place of the situation for the indi- 
vidual, may, in a number of ways, stand for the 
actual situation. One who wishes to buy a book, 
for example, needs but to utter the necessary 
words in order to realise his intention. 'Book' in 
such a case is all that is necessary for the purpose. 
If it is to be read, however, it must exist in more 
real form. 

When a situation is present in ideal form it 
receives the stamp of reality when it points to 
some foundation situation which can be directly 
controlled in a motor way. It receives a tinge 
of the impelling and necessary nature of founda- 
tion situations only by the feel of motor tenden- 
cies which impel realisation. A book which, when 
thought of, calls forth tendencies to open and 
touch it, is much more real than simply 'book' 
spelled out or seen only visually. So, too, the 
idea of a plaything has reality for the child when 
he feels tendencies to play with it. An ideal 
scheme can have reality only as affecting prac- 
tice, only as it leads to some basic situation. 
Until such realisation is possible it must be 
incomplete, it must exist much like a visual situ- 



10 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

ation which lies outside the field of direct motor 
control. 

Even as partial, as schematic and formal, ideas 
and images assume for the time a form deter- 
mined in part by foundation situations. As a 
formal object, the thought exists in the shape of 
a word, diagram, outline, or expression. The 
formal aspect of thought and ideation receives 
its stability by the same means which give sta- 
bility to basic situations. Motor control is called 
into service for the purpose of fixing the formal 
elements of ideal situations. Speech, writing, 
drawing, illustration, construction, etc., give to 
images and ideas a form which enables them to 
receive further verification in application and 
practice. In ideal situations we can not readily 
escape motor control. Images which are so flit- 
ting and transitory as to be outside the bounds of 
motor control and definite realisation of some 
sort, practical or esthetic, must stand outside the 
pale of belief. As ideal situations they can have 
little value. 

(c) Possible. Ideal situations which have 
arisen out of immediate experience and direct 
control naturally have the feel of reality to a 
greater degree than ideas or images which have 
been acquired in a more indirect way. If, for 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 11 

example, one has seen snow, felt it, and handled 
it, one will have a greater belief in its existence, 
will read a reality into the word 'snow' more 
readily than the savage who has simply heard of 
it. Much of what is given in instruction, in 
reading, in conversation, etc., has a reality only 
in an indirect manner. Upon the basis of what- 
ever experience has been acquired, a number of 
ideal situations acquire a reality in terms of 
transferred control. One may not have seen an 
emu, but if one is told that it is a bird similar to 
the ostrich, one more readily gives the term a 
reality which can be tested in some immediate, 
concrete situation. So, too, one may never have 
been in China, but actual situations before one, 
ideal situations in the form of pictures, descrip- 
tions, and the like, give one a basis which may be 
transferred to the possible situation implied 
in the term 'China.' The situation is possible in 
that there is a certain belief in its existence, in 
possible control and reaction in a sensorimotor 
manner. One feels sure, for example, that China 
exists, that travel to it is possible, that certain 
reactions may take place in it, that control in it 
is much like that under present conditions. 

The possible, it is seen, is a form of the ideal, 
but it is a form in which transferred motor coefS- 



12 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

cients are called into service to give backing to 
belief in what is considered possible. Often 
one will believe in the reality of a possible situ- 
ation which to others is just as surely a chimera. 
The broader and deeper the foundation of ex- 
perience, the stronger will be the belief in situa- 
tions which, to the untrained mind, seem to have 
no reality. The situation, for example, which was 
a possible one for Columbus and the early navi- 
gators, did not excite the same belief in the 
people about him. It became, to some extent, a 
real situation, when actual control was realised. 

§11. ILLUSTRATION 

1. Real. Real situations are best illustrated 
by laboratory and similar experimentation. Sev- 
eral examples will be given. 

Action of Chloroform and Ether. Excise two 
frogs' hearts and place each in a watch glass containing 
5 cc. of Ringer's fluid. To one add one drop of pure 
chloroform and cover with another watch glass. The 
heart will become feeble, lose tone, and finally stop beat- 
ing. It will take about ten times as much ether to pro- 
duce the same effect. Chloroform is ten times more 
potent a drug than ether. ^ 

Strike the chord c-e-g strongly upon the piano key- 
board, directing the attention to the c. Is it intensified.'^ 

^ Practical Physiology, by A. P. Beddard, L. Hill, J. S. Edkins, 
J. J. R. Mcleod, and M. S. Pembry, 75. 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 13 

Strike the chord again, directing the attention to the e 
or g. Is the tone attended-to intensified?^ 

Take two pieces of the same green paper. Lay one 
on a red background, the other on a background of its 
own color. Cover as before (with very thin tissue paper) 
and compare the two greens. Do similarly with red on 
a green and on a red background.^ 

2. Ideal. The two meanings of ideal should 
not be confused. In an ethical sense, 'ideal' re- 
fers to hope and aspiration, in a psychological 
sense, 'ideal' signifies simply what is representa- 
tive, cognitive, imaginative, and the like. 

1. Think of a bunch of white rose-buds, lying among 
fern leaves in a florist's box. 

(a) Are the colours — the creamy white, the green, the 
shiny white — quite distinct and natural? 

(b) Do you see the flowers in a good light? Is the 
image as bright as the objects would be if they lay on 
the table before you? 

(c) Are the flowers and leaves and box well-defined 
and clear-cut? Can you see the whole group of objects 
together, or is one part distinctly outlined while the 
others are blurred?* 

Etc., etc., etc. 

As for the scheme I had in my head, it was not a bad 
one in itself. I was to go down the sandy spit that 

^Titchener, Edward Bradford, Experimental Psychology, 
l:Pt. I, 111. 

' Thorndike, Edward L., The Elements of Psychology, 232. 
*Titchener, E. B., Exp. Psych., l:Pt. I, 198. 



14 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

divides the anchorage on the east from the open sea, find 
the white rock I had observed last evening and ascertain 
whether it was there or not that Ben Gunn had hidden 
his boat; a thing quite worth doing as I still believe. — 
Treasure Island, Stevenson. 

Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart: thou 
shalt in any wise rebuke thy neighbour, and not suffer 
sin upon him. 

Thou shalt not avenge, nor bear any grudge against 
the children of thy people, but thou shalt love thy 
neighbour as thyself. — Leviticus, 19. 

3. Possible. In a possible situation, realisation 
may be effected, or it may be simply hoped for. 
Both are illustrated in the following. 

Macbeth. My dearest love, 

Duncan comes here to-night. 

Lady Macbeth. And when goes hence.'' 

Macbeth. To-morrow, as he purposes. 

Lady Macbeth. O, never 

Shall sun that morrow see ! 

And there shall accompany them fair damsels having 
large black eyes ; resembling pearls hidden in their shells : 
as a reward for that which they shall have wrought. 
They shall not hear therein any vain discourse, or any 
charge of sin ; but only the salutation, Peace ! Peace ! 
And the companions of the right hand (how happy shall 
the companions of the right hand be!) shall have their 
abode among lote trees free from thorns, and trees of 
mauz loaded regularly with their produce from top to 
bottom ; under an extended shade, near a flowing water, 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 15 



and amidst fruits in abundance. — The Koran, Sura LVI, 
Eng. tr. by G. Sale. 

The last passage is a good illustration of trans- 
ferred control. As Muir points out, Mohamet 
painted a Paradise which would appeal to the 
pleasure loving Arab, which 'would captivate the 
inhabitant of the thirsty and sterile Mecca.' In 
this case a basis of real experience was used in 
the reconstruction of an ideal Paradise which 
would be believed in by the Arab.^ 

4. Illustration by Diagram. 




Fig. I. A, real. B, ideal. S, subject. 
O, real object. O', ideal object. O", 
situation to which, the ideal refers. 
F, focus. M, margin. C, center of 
control. 



= Muir, William, The Life of Mohamet, 75. 



16 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

1. Stages. It is highly probable, that the 
newly-born child is not conscious of subject or 
object in the same manner as is the grown adult. 
One is so accustomed to look upon an object as 
having some kind of existence apart from the 
subject that one tends to overlook the fact that 
this twofold relationship is the result of consid- 
erable development, the end station, as it were, 
of a somewhat complicated series of movements 
on the part of the child. Even in the developed 
consciousness, it is somewhat difficult sharply to 
differentiate what is subject, and what is object. 
In philosophy, for example, one aspect is often 
taken as basic, and the attempt is made to ex- 
plain the other in terms of it. In psychology, 
too, one or the other aspect is unduly emphasised. 
As far as attention is concerned, from the objec- 
tive side, it is viewed as simply a state of clearness 
and distinctness. From the subjective side, it 
is sometimes considered as ideal reinforcement 
or arrest of incoming impressions, or, by the older 
writers, as a species of mental activity. 

It must be remembered, in the first place, that 
subject and object, though looked upon, in a 
developed state, as two distinct things, have ex- 
istence only in a dynamic relationship, and, in 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 17 

the second place, that each in itself is an abstrac- 
tion. We do not have the subject, as such, and 
apart from some connection with an object. So, 
too, an object, by itself, means nothing, as far 
as the conscious subject is concerned. An object 
is an object, only as it affects a subject, only as 
there is action and reaction of some sort between 
the two. In a state of attention, for example, 
the subject attends to some situation, and some 
situation is in the focus of attention. We speak 
of each in a logical manner as having a separate 
existence, but such discussion does not affect the 
situation as it actually exists. Continual treat- 
ment of these two phases, subjective and objec- 
tive, as isolated units, leads one to look upon 
them as units which exist in independence of each 
other. In any conscious moment, however, the 
two wiU be found together. 

In the first pulse of life there is probably 
neither self nor object as a distinct phase of a 
situation. There is probably in the newly-born 
consciousness an undifferentiated whole, in which 
neither subject nor object stands out as a distinct 
existential fact. The nearest state in the adult 
consciousness is the dreamy condition usually 
present just before one goes to sleep, or when 
one is half asleep, and half awake. Out of this 



18 



ATTENTION AND INTEEEST 



raw material are developed notions of self and 
object. In early childhood self and object are 
often confused, and the gross division between 
the two is the result of considerable development. 
When the object is looked upon as more or less 
distinct from the self, attention, though existing 
from the very beginning, can be considered as a 
separate, conscious process. The three stages 
may be illustrated by the following diagrams, 
each of which represents a phase of a compli- 
cated process which at times combines the other 
phases : 






A, B C 

Pig. II. A, subject and object not differentiated. B, subject (S) and 
object (O). C, object in the focus of attention. 

2. Process. The process by which the notions 
of 'self and 'object' are constructed is essentially 
a motor one. As soon as more or less definite 
motor reactions and movements begin, as in 
seizing and grasping, some portions of the field 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 19 

of consciousness become outlined, cut out of their 
setting, and woven into the personal history of 
the individual concerned. A child which seizes 
a pencil, for example, plucks it out of its setting, 
gives it outline, uses it perhaps, and places it as 
a separate object among other objects. While 
the pencil may have had a more or less distinct 
visual outline, its control by the child would give 
greater vividness and strength to impressions of 
its separate existence. In fact, for grown people, 
manipulation and motor control is a test of the 
individual existence of an object. If one is not 
certain, for example, whether an object is fas- 
tened to some other, is part of it, or one separate 
from it, one wiU take it in hand, lift it, and try 
it in a number of ways. 

The changing nature of the objective field, 
too, tends to give it the stamp of existence apart 
from the self. A portion of the field comes and 
goes, suffers reconstruction or even destruction, 
and seems a flux opposed to a more or less stable 
background of individual feeling and conscious- 
ness. It is the same mass of feeling, for instance, 
which accompanies the act of throwing a toy out 
of the window, as that which goes with the activ- 
ity of looking out of the window, or of going 
down stairs to look for the toy. Feelings of 



20 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

motor activity, of satisfaction, pain, etc., are re-' 
f erred to the self in a more or less conscious 
manner. These give the self a value as a more 
or less unchanging, existential fact. In addition, 
visual elements, as of form of the body, remain 
much the same, and reinforce the feelings of 
motor activity, satisfaction, ease, quiescence, 
pleasure, and the like.® 

An aid in this process of differentiation is 
such control of others as enters into the child's^ 
field of experience. Conflict of control will 
bring out the 'other' as a separate factor in the 
total field. The difference in the conduct of 
others when entering in the same field of objects 
controlled by the child will also tend to stamp 
the 'other' as an existential fact apart from ob- 
jects within the child's field of activity. A grown 
person, for example, will take an object from 
the child, will take the child from the object, 

« See: Stout, G. F., 'The Genesis of the Cognition of Physical 
Reality,' Mind, 15, 1890. Baldwin, James Mark, Mental Develop- 
ment in the Child and the Race, 112-120, and Social and Ethical 
Interpretations in Mental Development, Ch. I. Preyer, W., The 
Development of the Intellect, Eng. tr. by H. W. Brown, Ch. XIX. 
Compayre, Gabriel, Development of the Child in Later Infancy, 
Eng. tr. by M. E. Wilson, Ch. VIII. Wundt, Wilhelm, Grundziige 
der Physiologischen Psychologie, 3:Ch. XVIII, §1, f. James, 
William, Principles of Psychology, Ch. X. and The Meaning of 
Truth, Marshall, H. R., Consciousness, Arnold, F., 'Conscious- 
ness and its Object,' Psych. Bev., 12, 1905. 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 21 

will assist the child in the control of the object. 
Such conflict of control, even with adults, em- 
phasises the existence of another as a separate 
fact which is to be reckoned with in the manipula- 
tion of objects. 

Within the objective field many changes may 
take place because of the manipulation and con- 
trol attempted by the child. Development of the 
situation may proceed by increase in the number 
and kinds of the points of contact which are 
made. When a child sees an object, he usually 
tries to seize it, bite it, throw it about, take it 
apart, test it in every possible manner. Each 
point of junction is a new experience for the 
child and gives fuller meaning to the situation in 
hand. Development of a situation is also pos- 
sible through reconstruction or partial destruc- 
tion. To a beholder the activity of the child may 
not mean development, may, in fact, seem a 
waste of time, or a positive nuisance. But to 
the child such control as he exercises, whether de- 
structive or not, results in a widening of his own 
experiences, and in instructive changes in the 
field before him. 

Successive acts of control result in increased 
differentiation and development. Residual ef- 
fects accumulate both in the subject and in the 



22 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

objective field. In the individual such cumula- 
tive results are represented by habits, mental 
dispositions, memories, and the like. The child, 
in popular parlance, 'will know better next time.' 
In the objective field we have, in the more ad- 
vanced stages, material progress, tradition, moral 
law and order, custom, etc. The latter then re- 
acts on the former and tends to preserve control 
within the grooves of custom. The social back- 
ground is usually able to enforce its conventions 
and manners on the individual, who, in turn, may 
be able to effect changes in such conventions and 
traditions. Action and reaction go together, here 
as elsewhere. On the basis of cumulative residua, 
the individual is able 'to rise on his dead self 
to higher things.' Whatever he has accomplished 
can be used as a foundation for further control. 
The child, for example, who has mastered writ- 
ing and reading, is able to spend his energy on 
other things. Below is a schematic outline which 
illustrates progress and individual endeavour on 
a broad platform of habit. 

Development of a situation in the manner sug- 
gested above demands a narrowing of the field 
under manipulation, a fixation of the object, a 
closer and more refined series of adjustments, a 
more delicate interpretation, a finer feel or body 



GIVEN SITUATION IN ATTENTION 23 




-1 IMPULSE 

Pig. III. Individual Development (after 
Baldwin, J. M., Ment. Dev.). 

attitude, in short, attention. The subject must 
select his object, examine aspects of it, try it 
in various ways, and control it in a more or less 
definite manner. Self and object exist together, 
each is influential in producing changes, each 
must be considered in relation to the other. The 
objective side of the situation gives us the field 
of attention. The subjective side gives us those 
motor adjustments, ideal elements, and reinforc- 
ing factors which are usually present in the more 
advanced stages of attention. Both aspects, the 
subjective and the objective, must be considered 
in the treatment of attention. 

§IV. EXPLANATION 

Certain biological considerations necessitate 
such differentiation and discrimination as are 



84 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

found in the subject-object relation, and in at- 
tention. Some restriction of the objective field 
is necessary for the continued existence of the 
organism. Discrimination and selection are nec- 
essary even in animal life, and in the more ele- 
mentary functions of eating and drinking. The 
savage who misses his aim may have to go hungry 
or starve. The hunter who can not find signs 
of water may perish. The child who is unable 
to control his knife will cut himself. The adult 
who does not hear the horn of the electric car 
may lose his life. Focalisation and definite reac- 
tion are necessary to ensure a modicum of ease 
and satisfaction. Strange and uncommon situa- 
tions which may result in pain or death must 
be focalised before further reaction of definite 
nature is possible. Moreover, focalisation with 
selection may be needed to ensure safe control. 

Where a situation is more or less known, fur- 
ther knowledge is possible only by analysis, dis- 
crimination, selection, and restricted control. 
Scientific workers are continually constructing 
mechanical aids by means of which given situa- 
tions can be cut up into smaller parts, restricted 
within a limited field, and intensively controlled. 
Specialisation is but another name for such fo- 
calisation and concentration. 



CHAPTER II 

THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT OF ATTENTION 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

1. Clearness and Distinctness. A striking 
characteristic of the field of attention is the 
change in the clearness and distinctness which re- 
sults from the motor and ideal processes which 
are aroused. As control of a situation becomes 
restricted, as the field narrows and becomes cut 
out of its setting, it is said to become distinct. 
The situation is distinct in that it is more or less 
sharply defined, in that it stands out from its 
surroundings. The outline of a flying bird as 
seen against a clear sky, the blur on the horizon 
which is recognised as a ship, these are distinct, 
though they can not be said to be clear. When, 
in addition, the parts of the situation stand out 
within the whole, when the relations between the 
parts become evident, the situation is said to be 
clear. The flying bird is then seen to have cer- 
tain coloration, the ship is then recognised as a 
steamship, with two or more stacks, and so on. 
Distinctness refers to the totality as set off 
against a marginal background. Clearness re- 

25 



26 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

fers to a further differentiation of the parts 
within the whole. 

Clearness and distinctness are terms which 
have historical connections. Descartes used clear- 
ness and distinctness as signs by which to judge 
of the truth of notions. 

I call that clear which is present and manifest to an 
attentive mind; . . . and distinct, that which is so sep- 
arate and distinguished from every thing else that it con- 
tains within itself only that which is clear.^ 

Clearness and distinctness have also been em- 
emphasized in connection with visual metaphors. 
The 'Blickpunkt'' view of attention has been 
prominently brought forward by Wundt and 
Titchener, but it was used long before them. 
Fortlage likens attention to the 'clear glance of 
observation'^ and Lotze compares it to the 'ret- 
ina of the eye.'^ Hamilton writes in a similar 
strain. 

Consciousness may be compared to a telescope, atten- 
tion to the pulling out or in of the tubes in accommodat- 
ing the focus to the object; and we might, with equal 
justice, distinguish in the eye, the adjustment of the 
pupil from the general organ of vision, as, in the mind, 

^Princ, Pt. I, § XLV. 

^ Fortlage, Karl, System der Psychologie, 1855, § 12. 

'Lotze, Rudolph Hermann, Medicinische Psycliologie, 1852, §37. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 27 

distinguish attention from consciousness as separate 
faculties/ 

This predominance of visual terminology is not 
strange when we consider, as Jevons points out, 
that at least 246 words in the English language 
have been derived from the root 'spec.'^ 

A third characteristic of the field of attention, 
emphasised by some, denied by others, is inten- 
sity, or rather, increase in intensity. Con- 
siderable discussion of the hair-splitting va- 
riety may be found defending one or the other 
view.^ Any contentions one way or the other in 
this connection disregard the basic function of 
such changes in the situation as take place. These 
changes are secondary and subordinate to the 
motor control and manipulation which is to be 

* Hamilton, Sir William, Lectures on Metaphysics, Lect. XIII. 

"See, Wundt, W., Grund. d. Phys. Psych., 3:333-339. Jodl, 
Friedrich, Lehrbuch der Psychologic, 2:74. Tichener, E. B., Exp. 
Psych., l:Pt. II, 89, and Lectures on the Elementary Psychology 
of Feeling and Attention. Eraser, Alexander, 'Visualisation as a 
Chief Source of the Psychology of Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and 
Hume,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 4:230-247. 

'See: Stumpf, Carl, Tonpsychologie, 1:§4, 2:§22. James, W., 
Princ, of Psych., 1:425. Kuelpe, Oswald, Outlines of Psychology, 
Eng. tr. by E. B. Titchener. Lough, James E., 'The Relations of 
Intensity to Duration of Stimulation in our Sensations of Sight,' 
Psych. Rev., 3:484-492. Miinsterberg, Hugo, and Kozaki, N., 
'The Intensifying Effect of Attention,' Psych. Rev., 1:39-44. 
Pillsbury, W., Attention, Ch. I. Titchener, E. B., El Psych, of 
Feeling and Attention. 



28 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

effected. There is no inherent virtue in either 
increase or decrease in intensity. Such a change, 
in itself, means httle. It is the purpose which 
the change is to subserve which determines 
whether or not there is to be an increase in the 
intensity of incoming impressions. If increase 
of intensity will facilitate more perfect control, 
then the individual will secure such increase in 
intensity and illumination, by artificial means, if 
necessary. Usually, ideal and motor reinforce- 
ments are called into service to secure increase 
in the intensity of an impression. If one listens 
closely enough, one may hear a sound which has 
no real existence. If ideal elements can not be 
used, mechanical instruments are called into play. 
On the other hand, if a more modified atmosphere 
is necessary, a situation may be plucked out of a 
too intense and blinding illumination, and placed 
in one more subdued. An artist will examine a 
picture with half -closed eyes. One may, in fact, 
close one's eyes entirely to a too obtrusive situa- 
tion. Intensity may or may not be found ac- 
cording as control calls for it or not. Increase 
in intensity, when present, is possible only within 
narrow limits. One can, for example, follow a 
diminuendo with increasing attention. The re- 
sulting increase in intensity is only a relative one. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 29 

and does not of necessity force the notes to their 
maximal strength. The diminuendo will remain 
a diminuendo, but with a less steep descent. 

2. Persistence. In attention, the situation be- 
comes more or less distinct and clear. In addition, 
it may persist for a time in the focus of the given 
field. Such persistence depends in great measure 
upon the points of contact which can be made, 
and upon the ideal elements which can be excited. 
When an object allows of esthetic interpretation, 
motor control, etc., the probabilities are that it 
will hold attention longer than will a more barren 
object. So too, a field which revives numerous 
ideas and images, will stay in the focus for a 
considerable time. One who gazes long at a 
time-table does not do so solely because of any 
inherent interest in the printed matter before 
him. 

The three characteristics, clearness, distinct-, 
ness, and persistence, inhere in the objective field, 
in the situation under control. The tendency to 
treat consciousness as a special kind of activity 
has led some to speak of the clearness and dis- 
tinctness of the mental state, of consciousness 
in general. Without a content, however, a mental 
state has no meaning. In attention to an object. 



30 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

the clearness is present in the given field. The 
object becomes more clear and distinct. It is 
not a more highly illuminated consciousness 
which is poured over a situation to brighten it 
up, but a control which makes more distinct and 
clear selected portions of the given field. 

3. Fluctuation. When minimal visual im- 
pressions are fixated steadily for a time the 
impressions do not continue at a uniform inten- 
sity but undulate, as it were, in a kind of rhythm. 
One who gazes steadily at a grey ring on a 
white background, for example, will find that 
the ring becomes less distinct, then more dis- 
tinct, then less distinct, and so on. The one 
ring will yield a fluctuating series of impression. 
Such moments of distinctness or indistinctness, 
i.e. J, from distinctness to indistinctness, or from 
indistinctness to distinctness, vary from 5 to 25 
seconds. It is to be noted that such fluctuation 
is evident with only very weak impressions. 

Experimental investigation has shown a num- 
ber of concomitant phenomena. 

(1) Fluctuation is closely related to respira- 
tory and vasomotor changes. 

(2) Slight sensory stimulation increases the 
length of the periods in which the distinct waves 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 31 

persist. More intense stimulation decreases 
them, i.e. J, when the visual impression is very 
weak the distinct period is longer than when the 
impression is stronger. 

(3) Fatigue decreases the length of the pe- 
riods in which the distinct waves persist. 

(4) The fluctuations correspond with the di- 
urnal periodicity of general vitality. The 
periods of greatest distinctness are usually longer 
in the morning than at evening. 

(5) Pathological conditions affect the fluctu- 
ations of attention. Thus 10 g. of alcohol 
decrease the length of the periods of fluctuation 
and induce a general fatigue, while 3 g. of brom. 
natr. increase the length of the periods. So, too, 
pathological conditions of depression or of ex- 
citation respectively decrease or increase effi- 
ciency in this connection.^ 

'^ Among others, see Eckener, Hugo, 'Untersuchungen uber die 
Schwankungen der Auifassung minimaler Sinnesreize,' Phil. 8tud., 
8:343-387. Galloway, E. C, 'The Effect of Stimuli upon the 
Length of Traube-Hering Waves,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 15:499-512. 
Hammer, Bertil, 'Zur experimentellen Kritik der Theorie der 
Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,' Zeit. f. Psych., 37:363-376. 
Heinrich, W., und Chwistek, L., 'Ueber das periodische Ver- 
schwinden kleiner Punkte,' Zeit. f. Psych., 41:59-73. Hylan, J. P., 
'Fluctuations of Attention,' Psych. Rev., 3:56-63. Lehmann, 
Alfred, 'Ueber die Beziehung zwischen Athmung und Aufmerk- 
samkeit,' Phil. Stud., 9:66-95. Marbe, Karl, 'Die Schwankungen 
der Gesichtsempfindungen,' Phil. Stud., 8:615-637. Pace, Edward, 
'Zur Frage der Schwankungen der Aufmerksamkeit nach Ver- 



32 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



The following tables give in seconds the peri- 
ods of distinct vision and indistinct vision, under 
normal conditions, and with accompanying stim- 
ulation from different sources. The attention 
in each case was fixated on a revolving disc hav- 
ing on it a circle of grey (Masson disc) .^ 

SUBJECTS 





Normal 


Induction 
Current 


Smoking 




V 


NV 


T 


V 1 NV 


T 


V 


NV 


T 


Av. of 7 tests 


6.0 


4.9 


10.9 


4.5 4.5 


9.0 


7.1 


4.2 


11.3 






Ether 


Balsam 


Single tests 


6.7 6.7 1 13.4 


5.0 1 5.4 1 10.4 


3.3 1 4.1 1 7.44 



F.= visible, N.V.=not visible, T.=:total. 

Induction current. A slight current was passed through the 
left hand while the subject was looking at the Masson disc. 
Smoking. Subject smoked during the process of fixation. 
Ether, balsam. Odors were smeUed during the experiment. 

Table I 

suchen mit der Masson'sschem Scheibe,' Phil. Stud., 8:388-402, 
Pillsbury, W. B., 'Attention Waves as a Means of Measuring 
Fatigue,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 14:277-288. Seashore, C. E., 'Die 
Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,' Zeit. f. Psych., 39:448-450. 
Slaughter, J. W., 'The Fluctuations of the Attention in some of 
their Psychological Relations,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 12:313-334. 
Taylor, R. W., 'The Effect of Certain Stimuli upon the Attention 
Wave,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 12:335-345. Wiersma, E., 'Unter- 
suchungen iiber die sogenannten Aufmerksamkeitsschwankungen,' 
Zeit. f. Psych., 26:168-200, 28:179-198, 31:110-126. For further 
references see Pillsbury, W. B., Attention, and Titchener, E. B., 
The Psych, of Feeling and Attention. 
•From, Taylor, R. W., Ibid., 337, 339. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 

SUBJECT E 



33 





Normal 


Induction 
Current 


After 
Stimulation 




V 


NV 


T 


V 


NV 


T 


V 


NV 


T 


Av. of 4 tests 


15.3 


10.5 


25.8 


IT.l 


12.8 


30.0 












Subject B 




Av. of 3 tests 


5.6 2.5 1 8.1 


6.6 2.5 9.1 


5.4 2.8 8.2 



Table II 

Fluctuation in the case of minimal visual im- 
pressions seems to be well established. In the 
case of minimal auditory and tactile impressions, 
however, it is highly probable that any fluctua- 
tion similar to visual fluctuation does not take 
place. It is extremely difficult to establish any 
definite waves of distinctness and indistinctness 
in such cases. One should go through a series of 
tests before accepting a few results of somewhat 
doubtful experimentation. If sound is used, the 
stimulation must be minimal and persistent as 
far as the mechanical arrangements are con- 
cerned. Simple tones seem to remain constant, 
and very light weights (cork) on the hand give 
no evidence of fluctuation. This can be tried by 
any one.^ 

*See Titchener, E. B., Feel, and Attent., 267, and Am. Jour, 
of Psych., 10:95. 
3 



34 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

4. Unity. Before one discusses the unity of 
attention one should state exactly what one re- 
fers to by such unity and also what conditions 
hold when such unity is tested. For example, it 
is true that one can recognise a word as easily as 
one can a letter. The unity is then the word as 
a whole and not the separate letters which com- 
pose the word. So, too, one can glance at a page 
and give the number of words on the page as two 
or three hundred. What is then in the focus of 
attention is the single page which means or sig- 
nifies the number of words. It would hardly 
hold, however, that three hundred words, as sepa- 
rate words, were seen in the one act of apprehen- 
sion. It is usually held that in the visual field 
attention to four or five distinct and separate 
objects is possible.^^ If these objects are really 
seen as separate objects, then the statement is 
true, that attention 'is possible to five objects. But 
if through long association and habitual motor 
adjustments, certain groupings have come to 
mean 'five,' if contact and manipulation of ob- 
jects have shown such objects to be five, and to 
stand for 'five,' then the single act of attention 
to groupings of four or five w^ould result in the 
recall of 'five' as a number whole associated with 

*"See, for example, Pillsbury, W. B,, Attention, Ch. VI. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 35 

the group. In such a case, even though 'five' 
means a series, a number of successive acts of 
counting, a succession of distinct and separate 
events, the act of attention at the given moment 
did not necessarily include such counts or series. 
We look, for example, at a series of lines and 
cognise five at a given moment. ISTow do we 
actually see five distinct and separate objects at 
a glance, or do we recognise a group which ex- 
perience has taught us is 'five,' and then interpret 
the 'five' another way, i.e.^ as a series? 

Two varying conditions lead one to believe 
that the latter is the case. When the length of 
time in which a group is exposed to an observer 
is shortened, fewer objects are seen in a single 
act of attention. So, too, the results differ when 
the ages of the observers differ. Griffing tested 
the pupils of the different school years with a 
series of letters. The observers looked at the 
fixation point, and at the signal, 'Ready,' the 
letters were shown for a given time. In the fol- 
lowing tables are given the results of two series 
of tests, the first with a time limit of 1 second, 
the second with a time limit of .1 second.^^ A 
study of the figures will show the variation due 
to decrease in the time of exposure. 

"Griffing, Harold, 'On the Development of Visual Perception 
and Attention,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 7:227-236. 



36 



ATTENTION AND INTEEEST 



Average Total Number Seen With 1 Secoxd Exposure For 
Different Classes 



N 


c 


S 


MV 


R 


MV 


Max. 


MiN. 


R 

S 


19 


I 


20 


7 


17 


5 


36 


7 


.85 


17 


II 


30 


5 


26 


4 


38 


20 


.87 


10 


III 


37 


5 


33 


5 


49 


20 


.89 


20 


IV 


35 


5 


28 


6 


48 


14 


.77 


15 


V 


40 


7 


36 


6 


43 


25 


.90 


22 


VI 


44 


6 


38 


5 


54 


28 


.82 


13 


VII 


51 


8 


44 


8 


58 


29 


.86 


11 


VIII 


50 


8 


47 


7 


59 


31 


.94 


10 


High 


59 


2 


55 


6 


60 


40 


.93 



In this and the following table, 

N.^number of pupils in the class. 

C.=class by year. 

S.=average of the total number of letters as seen in ten trials, 
six letters being given in each trial. The first, for example, 20, is 
the number seen in ten trials. This will give, for the first year, 
2 seen in a single act of attention. 

M.V.=mean variation of S. 

R.z=average of the total number seen correctly during the ten 
trials. 

M.V.=:mean variation of R. 

MAx.^maximum of the total number seen by any individual 
during the ten trials. 

MiN.=minimum seen correctly by any individual 

Table III 



Average Total Number Seek With .1 


Second 


Exposure 


N 


C 


S 


MV 


R 


MV 


Max. 


Min. 


R 

S 


22 


I 


8 


6 


3 


3 


17 





.4 


16 


II-III 


13 


8 


6 


4 


19 





.4 


12 


IV 


16 


6 


7 


3 


13 


1 


.4 


17 


V 


18 


5 


14 


4 


22 


3 


.8 


17 


VI 


22 


10 


12 


5 


25 





.5 


23 


VII 


19 


7 


14 


5 


23 





.7 


23 


VIII 


25 


7 


21 


6 


37 


8 


.8 


84 


High 


30 


5 


23 


6 


47 


4 


.8 


75 


Coll. 


32 


6 


29 


6 


59 


11 


.9 



Table IV 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 37 

It is seen that when the time of exposure was 
reduced from one second to one tenth of a second, 
the number of letters seen in a single act of at- 
tention dropped considerably, in most cases to 
less than half as many. It is also seen that the 
younger pupils were able to grasp a much smaller 
number of letters in a single act of apprehension 
than were the older ones. One can not say, 
therefore, that attention to five objects is pos- 
sible, if one means five separate and distinct 
objects. All the pupils were shov^^n the same 
letters, but such letters did not signify the same 
number wholes to the different pupils. As a 
simple, mechanical act, the seeing and the atten- 
tion were the same in each case. The difference 
in the results was due to the difference in the 
development and training of the pupils, to the 
difference in the associations, and in the experi- 
ence with numbered or grouped objects. 

A series of experiments by Hylan show prac- 
tically the same thing, namely, that the elements 
of time and experience are conditioning factors 
in the apprehension of groups of objects. In 
these tests six letters on each of twenty cards were 
exposed in succession, one letter at a time. The 
series of six letters was exposed for 20 o-. or 3.6 o-. 
for each letter. In the first tests, the shutter 



38 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



passed from right to left, and in the second from 
left to right. A signal was given before the 
exposure of the series. Each of the twenty cards 
was shown five times, this making one hundred 
exposures for each subject. The subjects gave 
both the letters seen, and their order. The results 
in the following table give the totals for the 
hundred tests.^^ 



Subject 


A 


H 


R 


S 


V 


Av. 


No. seen correctly 
No. seen wrong 
No. misplaced 


212 
40 
17 


222 
30 
16 


158 

58 
5 


160 

50 

18 


224 
58 
23 


195 
47 
16 


(Reversed) 

No. seen correctly 
No. seen wrong 
No. misplaced 


208 

32 

6 


225 
22 
13 


151 
53 
10 


151 
53 
10 


229 
9 


196 

45 

9 



Table V 

The first effect of the letters was that of a single com- 
plex impression, some characters appearing distinctly 
outlined, some confused, and some entirely unseen. This 
conscious impression followed the exposure in much the 
same way that a positive after image follows a stimula- 
tion of light. It was sometimes possible to hold this 
impression with all its details an appreciable length of 
time without recognising a single letter, until each char- 
acter was recognised one at a time. But it was more 

"Hylan, J. P., 'The Distribution of Attention,' Psych. Bev., 
10:373-403, and 498-533. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



39 



frequent that one or sometimes two letters were recog- 
nised without being preceded by an appreciable Interval, 
and these followed by one or two more, one at a time and 
in distinct succession/^ 

Hylan conducted a further series of experi- 
ments to test the distribution of attention and to 
find whether or not the groups are seen as groups 
of distinct objects, or as groups which are later 
analysed into their separate parts. Lines, nu- 
merals, letters, and words were shown on cards. 
Twelve cards were used five times each in each 
series. The smallest number of lines on a card 
was 4 (2 mm. apart), of numerals and letters, 
3, and of words, 2. The observer was asked to 
give the arrangement of the single elements of 
an impression. The results in the following ta- 
ble are the totals of sixty tests. The per cent is 
that of the number of wrong cases seen. The 
time exposure was one tenth of a second. 



Objects 
Exposed 


Lines 


Figures 


Letters 


Words 




































R 


W 


% 


R 


w 


% 


R 


W 


% 


R 


w 


% 


2 








48 


32 


6T 


3 








Qb 


5 


8 


61 


9 


14 


14 


46 


329 


4 


50 


10 


10 


52 


18 


35 


50 


30 


60 


19 


21 


111 


5 


41 


34 


34 


68 


42 


62 


36 


64 


178 


1 


19 


1900 


6 


41 


34 


34 


31 


59 


190 


14 


46 


329 









Table VI 



"^Ibid., 398. 



40 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

It is seen that attention is not evenly distributed 
over the given field, that it does not grasp a 
totality as a group of distinct objects, that, in 
fact, the number, five, six, etc., is due, either to 
an association of the group with the number, or 
an interpretation of the group, an analysis which 
has no place in the original act of attention. 
One can not, therefore, say that visual attention 
to five or six objects is possible. It is highly 
probable that attention to more than one or two 
distinct and separate objects is impossible. In 
fact, in attention to a number of series of three 
letters each, Cron and Kraepelin found that the 
middle letter was read correctly the most, the last 
letter a less, and the first letter the least number 
of times.^^ This would hardly be if there were 
such a thing as a single pulse of attention which 
grasped in detail several distinct objects. 

Tests on attention to a succession of sounds 
show that as many as 8 can be apprehended as 
a group, and that when the sounds are so 
grouped, as many as from 2 to 5 groups can be 

"Cron, Ludwig, and Kraepelin, Emil, 'Ueber die Messung der 
Auffassungsfahigkeit,' Psych. Arbeit en, 2:219. See also, Finzi, 
Jacopo, 'Zur Untersuchung der Auffassungsfahigkeit und Merk- 
fahigkeit,' Psych. Arb. 3:289-384. Kleinknecht, H., 'The Inter- 
ference of Optical Stimuli,' Harvard Psychological Studies, 
2:299-308. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 41 

seized and retained. The most favorable time of 
succession in such cases seems to vary between 
0.3 and 0.18 seconds.^ ^ As in visual impressions, 
so in auditory, it is highly probable that the 
sounds are not cognised as distinct and separate 
impressions, but rather as a group or rhythm 
which is connected with the number 'eight,' or 
which, as a rhythmic impression, comes to mean 
*eight.' There still remains to be made a series 
of experiments in which a number of simulta- 
neous auditory impressions are given with vary- 
ing periods of persistence, as in the case of visual 
impressions. 

In the field of touch Krohn gave simultaneous 
touch impressions to different parts of the body. 
He found that when the impressions were scat- 
tered, as many as six or seven could be appre- 
hended as distinct and separate.^ ^ But as Hylan 
remarks, "It should be said, however, that after- 
images of touch were very persistent, and were 
used to a considerable extent in locating the sen- 
sations."^^ What has been said in connection 

^^Dietze, Georg, 'Untersuchung iiber den Umfang aes "Be- 
wusstseins bei regelmassig auf einander folgenden Schallein- 
drucken,' Phil. Stud., 2:362-393, 384. 

^^ Krohn, W. O., 'An Experimental Study of Simultaneous 
Stimulations of the Sense of Touch,' Journ. of Nerv. and Ment. 
Diseases, 1893. 

"Hylan, Ibid., B78, 



43 ATTENTION AND INTEEEST 

with visual impressions may therefore be consid- 
ered to hold in the case of touch sensations. In 
visual, auditory, and tactile attention, we may 
safely say that the number of objects to which 
one can attend is not more than one or two. 
Larger numbers must be considered as due to 
group associations, or to later analyses which 
interpret the group impression and read into it 
the different objects. 

The different experiments have been made in 
visual, auditory, and tactile fields. Attention in 
the visual field is something different from at- 
tention in the auditory field, and the same is true 
of attention in the tactile sphere. We can not 
be said to possess any distinct and separate power 
of attention. Each field is distinct and separate. 
Just how many fields can be attended to at once, 
depends in part upon the connection of such 
fields with some common situation, in part upon 
the unity of motor control, and in part upon the 
experience of the subject. There is still to be 
performed a series of experiments which will 
determine just to what extent these conditions 
affect the unity of attention. Tests on distrac- 
tion shed considerable light on the subject. As 
these will be considered under the topic of facili- 
tation and arrest, they need not be discussed 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 43 

here. From the data thus far presented, however, 
it seems safe to infer that what we have is not a 
single pulse of consciousness, not a uniform field 
of attention, but rather a number of concomitant 
pulses of consciousness, a number of synchro- 
nous situations. In most cases the visual and 
the motor coalesce, but this need not always 
be so. When visual, motor, or other fields coin- 
cide in a single situation, unity is usually pos- 
sible in the field of attention. When such fields, 
however, inhere in different objects, when stimu- 
lation comes through different channels and from 
different objects, partial attention to each may 
be possible, depending upon the complexity of 
the situation and the intensity of the attempted 
control. In short, we have a number of at- 
tentions, and not a single power of attention. 
This, however, is anticipating later discussion. 

5. Facilitation and Arrest. Under the 
name of 'distraction of attention' a number of 
experiments have been made with a view of de- 
termining the effects of extraneous stimulation 
on attention to some given fields. Some of these 
tests showed that at times the results were better 
when the so-called distraction was attempted. 
For example, when music was played on a piano 
while the observer lifted weights and discrimi- 



44 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

nated them, the results were better than when there 
was no music/ ^ Such tests, however, are based on 
the assumption that error alone is the means of 
detecting distraction of attention. These tests, 
too, assume that extraneous stimulation is one of 
the few means of securing distraction. A great 
deal of experimentation in various fields, however, 
has shown that attention may be arrested or facil- 
itated in a number of ways, and that such facili- 
tation or arrest is made evident by means other 
than error in the results. One aspect which must 
be considered in detecting facilitation or arrest 
is time. If, under the new conditions, the results 
are secured in less time, attention may be said to 
be facilitated. If more time is required, attention 
may be said to be arrested. If the time remains 
constant, then facilitation is shown if there are 
less errors in the results, and arrest is shown if 
there are more errors in the results. A second as- 
pect of importance is the number of objects 
which can be attended to as objects within a given 
time, and under the new conditions. If more ob- 
jects can be cognised under the new conditions, 
then attention is facilitated, if less, attention is 

"Talbot, E. B., 'A Study of Certain Methods of Distracting 
the Attention,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 9:332-345, and 336, 344. 
See also Moyer, F. E., Ibid., 8:405-413, and Birch, L. G., Ibid., 
9:44-55. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



45 



arrested. When the time remains constant, then 
increase in the complexity of the given field will 
result in more errors if attention is arrested, and 
less, if attention is facilitated. The third means 
of showing facilitation or arrest is the number of 
errors which results. If the time remains con^ 
stant, and the given field remains constant, then 
arrest is shown if the new conditions produce 
more errors, and facilitation is shown if they 
give rise to less errors. The conditions under 
which facilitation or arrest may be produced will 
be considered in the following sections. It is 
seen that extraneous stimulation is only one of 
a number. 

(a) Simplicity versus complexity. Of the two 
given fields, the one which is more complex will 
hold attention a longer time. This is shown by 
the following test, in which, for each series of 
100 fluctuations in attention to the simple figure. 




Fig. IV. 



46 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



there were less for the complex figure. The fol- 
lowing table gives the exact ratios.^® 



Observer 


A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


Figure I 
Figure II 


100 
50 


100 
70 


100 
35 


100 
35 


100 
20 



Table VII 

In Hylan's tables, the same is shown by the test 
of error. When the time remained constant, and 
the observer was asked to give the arrangement 
of each of the parts of the given field, the wrong 
cases averaged 34 per cent when the field con- 
sisted of five lines, 62 per cent when it contained 
five numerals, 178 per cent for five letters, and 
1900 per cent for five words. When the number 
of objects was four instead of five, the per cents 
were, for lines, 10 per cent, for numerals 35 
per cent, for letters 60 per cent, and for words 
111 per cent. The time exposure in these tests 
was one tenth of a second.^*^ Cattell found that 
it took much longer to recognise and name a 
color or a picture, than it did a letter or a word. 
The following table is of interest both for psy- 

^* Gordon, Kate, 'Attention as Determined by the Complexity 
of the Presented Content,' Psych. Rev., 10:278-283. 
^"See above, page 39, table VI. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



47 



chological and pedagogical reasons. The time 



is 


given in thousandths of a second. 


21 




Letter 


Word 


Word 


Color 


Picture 


A 


476 


Bond 


405 


Baum 


423 


Blue 


515 


Anchor 


535 


B 


413 


Cause 


428 


Berg 


417 


Green 


532 


Eye 


503 


C 


424 


Chair 


411 


Bild 


424 


Red 


559 


Tree 


517 


D 


411 


Child 


411 


Brief 


440 


Black 


505 


Hatchet 


513 


E 


424 


Death 


405 


Buch 


443 


Yellow 


575 


Image 


574 


F 


420 


Earth 


406 


Ding 


435 


Rose 


578 


Leaf 


567 


G 


426 


Fact 


385 


Fluss 


424 


Violet 


611 


Flower 


586 


H 


422 


Faith 


379 


Form 


409 


Grey- 


697 


Fish 


48 r 


I 


451 


Force 


373 


Gold 


450 


Brown 


603 


Bottle 


561 


J 


415 


Head 


362 


Haus 


403 


Orange 


730 


Glass 


596 


K 


409 


House 


388 


Jahr 


454 






Hand 


490 


L 


423 


King 


408 


Kind 


450 






Hat 


446 


M 


422 


Life 


424 


Kunst 


461 






Can 


600 


N 


422 


Light 


414 


Land 


441 






Cross 


591 





409 


Love 


404 


Licht 


441 






Light 


552 


P 


393 


Mind 


418 


Mann 


439 






Moon 


587 


Q 


418 


Name 


410 


Nacht 


447 






Scissors 


558 


R 


446 


Plan 


396 


Recht 


445 






Boat 


486 


S 


410 


Ship 


390 


Stadt 


449 






Umbrella 


556 


T 


409 


Slave 


402 


Stern 


432 






Shoe 


493 


U 


441 


Song 


389 


Theil 


424 






Key 


560 


V 


423 


Style 


442 


Tisch 


449 






Star 


498 


w 


432 


Time 


408 


Traum 


454 






Chair 


534 


X 


412 


Truth 


424 


Volk 


428 






Table 


547 


Y 


463 


World 


408 


Welt 


445 






Watch 


562 


Z 


421 

424 
17 


Year 


412 


Zahl 


469 






Bird 


566 


Ave. 


404 


438 


591 


541 


H.V. 


14 


14 


38 


25 



Table VIII 

In the case of the colors an added factor in the 
arrest of attention was the difficulty in finding 

^ Cattell, James McKeen, 'Ueber die Zeit der Erkennung und 
Benennung von Schriftzeichen, Bildern, und Farben,' Phil. Stud., 
2:635-650, and 'Psychometrische Untersuchungen,' Ibid., 3:304- 
335, and 452-492. The latter is the most Important and contains 
the table given. 



48 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



the right name for the color. It is to be noted 
that with the words, the totality as a whole was 
named. There was no attempt to discriminate 
or arrange the letters of the word. 

(b) Pleasure-pain. The general effects of 
pleasurable or painful situations are well known. 
A field which is pleasing to the individual tends 
to hold the attention, one which is painful, to 
repel the attention. In smelling odors, some 
pleasant, some unpleasant, 19 students reacted 
either by relaxing the hands and letting the 
head drop back (extension), or by contracting 
the hands and letting the head drop forward. 
The following table gives the number of cases : 



Reactions 


Unpleasant 


Pleasant 


Indifferent 




Cases 


Per Cent. 


Cases 


Per Cent. 


Cases 


Per Cent. 


Flexion 
Extension 


240 
120 


66.6 
33.3 


118 

248 


32.2 
67.8 


15 
16 


49 
51 


Ratio 


2 : 1 


1 : 2+ 


1 


: 1 



Table IX 

The experimenters make this additional note: 

Other tendencies are present, however, such for ex- 
ample as the tendency to move towards an object which 
attracts attention; the tendency to move away from a 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 49 

disagreeable object; the tendency to make particular 
movements of adaptation to stimuli ; etc.^^ 

Lloyd Morgan's experiments with animals 
show the same thing. 

To some other chicks I threw cinnabar larvae, dis- 
tasteful caterpillars conspicuous by alternate rings of 
black and golden-yellow. They were seized at once, but 
dropped uninjured; the chicks wiped their bills — a sign 
of distaste — and seldom touched the caterpillars a second 
time. The cinnabar larvae were then removed, and 
thrown in again towards the close of the day. Some of 
the chicks tried them once, but they were soon left. The 
next day the birds were given brown loopers and green 
cabbage-moth caterpillars. These were approached with 
some suspicion, but presently one chick ran off with a 
looper, and was followed by others, one of which stole 
and ate it. In a few minutes all the caterpillars were 
cleared off.^^ 

Attention may be attracted by a situation 
which excites feeling, but the persistence of such 
attention is determined in part by the pleasure- 
pain elements which enter. One can, of course, 
attend to a situation in spite of the pain which 
exists, but, other things remaining the same, at- 

^ Dearborn, G. V., and Spindler, F. N., 'Involuntary Motor 
Reaction to Pleasant and Unpleasant Stimuli,' Psych. Bev., 

4:461, 462. 

^^ Morgan, C. Lloyd, Habit and Instinct, 41. 
4 



50 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

tention will tend to persist when the situation is 
j)leasurable, and to lag when it is painful. 

When pleasure-pain elements are present in a 
situation, they tend to impel attention. The 
strength of the shock is dependent upon the 
suddenness and the intensity of the impressions 
which impel consciousness. In order of their 
stimulating efficacy are situations which produce 
(1) profound emotions, (2) violent affective 
conditions, (3) transitory and superficial emo- 
tions, unexpected impressions, intense impres- 
sions, (4) continuous sensations, and (5) quiet 
mental application under favorable conditions. 
On the other hand, the stability and regularity of 
attention are conditioned by situations which 
produce the above changes in reverse order.^* 

(c) Quality of the impression. When an im- 
pression is more intense, it produces a greater 
shock and stimulates attention more than when 
it is weaker. Angell and Thompson found that 
of two noises, when both were unexpected, 'a loud 
noise produced a much more violent shift of 
attention than a slight one.'^^ A strong stimu- 
lus will produce the same effect as a weak one in 

^Angell, James Rowland, and Thompson, Helen Bradford, 
'A Study of the Relations between Certain Organic Processes and 
Consciousness,' Psych.. Rev., 6:32-69. 

"^Ibid., 62. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 51 

half the time, that is, attention is more readily 
aroused by the more intense impression. As 
Lough shows, 

A strong stimulus acting for half the time necessary 
to produce its maximum effect gives rise to a sensation of 
exactly the same intensity as that produced by half as 
strong a stimulus producing its maximum effect.^® 

Differences between black and white are much 
more quickly perceived when the sensations are 
more intense. As the differences between the 
shades become smaller, i.e.j, as the impressions 
become weaker, the time necessary to discrimi- 
nate them becomes longer. Intensity of impres- 
sion may therefore be considered as a facilitating 
influence as far as the impelling of attention is 
concerned.^^ 

An impression, too weak in itself to excite 
attention, will finally succeed in stimulating 
attention if repeated. This phenomenon is 
known as 'summation of stimuli.' A succession 
of weak impressions then has the force of one 
more intense stimulus. 

^® Lough, James E., 'The Relations of Intensity to Duration of 
Stitnulation in our Sensations of Light,' Psych. Bev., 3:484-492. 

^ Cattell, J. McKeen, 'The Time of Perception as a Measure of 
Differences in Intensity,' Phil. 8tud., 19:63-68, Henmon, V. A. C, 
'The Time of Perception as a Measure of Diiferences in Sensa- 
tions,' Arch, of Phil., Psch., and 8ci. Meth., 8. 



52 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



(d) Time. When more time is allowed during 
an act of attention, facilitation results, when less 
time is given, arrest follows. In Griffing's tests, 
a decided fall was shown in the number of letters 
seen, when the exposure was reduced from one 
second to one tenth of a second, and a still 
greater fall was evident in the number seen cor- 
rectly. Arrest is here shown both by the de- 
crease in the number seen, and by the increase in 
the errors.^^ The tests of Cron and Kraepelin 
show a similar decrease in the number of right 
cases seen when the time of exposure is decreased. 
With apertures respectively 5 mm., 4 mm., and 
3 mm., the corresponding time exposures were 
290 <r, 230 0-, and 170 o-, (o- equals a thousandth 
of a second) . When syllables were shown 
through these openings, more wrong cases oc- 
curred with the shorter exposures, as is shown 
by the following table :^^ 

Per Cents, of Right Cases Seen 



Space in MM. 


5 M M. 


4 M M. 


3 mm. 


Time in % 
Right cases in % 


100 
100 


79.3 
97.0 


58.6 
87.7 



Table X 
^ See above, page 36, tables III and IV. 
^^Cron, L., und Kraepelin, E., 'Ueber die Messung der Auf- 
fassungsfahigkeit,' Psych. Arb., 2:203-325. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



53 



(e) Age. The experiments conducted by 
Griffing show that the older the child who at- 
tends, the better will be the results of his atten- 
tion, both in the number of letters seen in the 
given moment, and in the accuracy of these 
results. When six letters were exposed for one 
tenth of a second, and the observers asked to 
write down what they saw, the older pupils were 
able to record a greater number and a more accu- 
ate result as is shown by the following table : 



N 


Age 


S 


R 


M.V. 


Max. 


MiN. 


R 

S 


39 


T-9, 


11 


4+ .4 


3 


33 





.4 


77 


10-12 


20 


13+ .3 


3 


32 





.6 


73 


13-15 


24 


18+ .6 


6 


37 





.7 


132 


16+ (18) 


32 


27+ .4 


6 


59 


8 


.8 



N.=number tested, 

S.=average of the total number of letters written down as 

seen in ten trials, six letters being shown in each trial, 
R.=average of the total number seen correctly, 
MAx.=maximum of the total number seen by any individual, 
Misr.=minimuni of the total number seen correctly by any 

individual. 
Probable errors of the values of R. are given in the R. column 

preceded by the sign -[-.'" 

Table XI 



Messmer found that adults take less time to read 
the ordinary printed page than do children, and 

^"Griffing, Harold, 'On the Development of Visual Perception 
and Attention,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 7:230. 



54 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



that children of older age excel those who are 
younger. Thus an adult wiU take 200-500 o- to 
read a word or letter at a normal rate of speed, 
a child of 11 years of age, 300-700 , one of 9, 
400-800 a, and one of 7, 500-1000 o-, as the table 
below shows :^^ 



Age 


7 


9 


11 


Adult 


Direct 


Forw. 


Back 


Forw. 


Back 


Forw. 


Back 


Forw. 


Back 


Letter 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


R 


G 


N.Wd. 
F. Wd. 
F. Let. 


775 
632 

585 


770 
750 
750 


990 

785 
775 


952 
950 
810 


415 
380 
460 


460 
425 
465 


585 
500 
590 


645 

577 
555 


375 
305 
410 


420 
337 
410 


565 
495 

525 


600 

575 

472 


297 
295 

270 


305 
290 
310 


467 
370 
372 


465 
395 
360 



Direction, forward or backward. 
Letters, Roman or Gothic, 
N.Wd., words read at a normal rate of speed, 
F.Wd., words read fast, 
F.Let., letters read fast. 

Results are in thousandths of a second, and are the averages of 
100 words or letters read. 

Table XII 

{/) Preadjustment. When an observer ex- 
pects a stimulus, and gets ready to react to it, 
attention is usually facilitated. When the im- 
pression is unexpected and when the observer is 
not ready to receive it, attention is usually 

^Messmer, Oskar, 'Zur Psychologie des Lesens bei Kindern 
und Erwachsenen,' Arch. f. d. Ges. Psych., 2:190-298. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



55 



arrested. In general, preadjustment of the sense 
organs and body attitude is favorable to atten- 
tion. Dwelshauvers made a series of experi- 
ments in which the subject reacted to a stimulus 
with a signal and without a signal. When no 
signal preceded the stimulus the reaction time 
was greatly lengthened. In the table below the 
signal preceded the stimulus at periods of l^/^, 3, 
and 6 seconds. The results are given in thou- 
sandths of a second. 



SiG. Interval 


li seconds 


3 seconds 


6 seconds 




S 


M 


S 


M 






Signal 
No Signal 


257.02 
308.6 


129.78 
184. 


279.66 
304.03 


133.22 

183.45 


299.86 
301.97 


144.8 
196.97 



S. attention concentrated on the stimulus, 
M. attention concentrated on the reaction. 

When no signal was given the intervals of stimulation were 
respectively 30, 45, and 60 seconds.'^ 

Table XIII 

In simple reactions to sound with no signal, with 
irregular signals, and with regular signals, 
Martins obtained the following results :^^ 

*^ Dwelshauvers, Georg, 'Untersuchungen zur Mechanik der 
activen Aufmerksamkeit,' Phil. Stud., 6:217-249. 

^'Martius, Gotz, 'Ueber die muskulare Reaction und die Auf- 
merksamkeit,' Phil. Stud., 6:167-216. 



56 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



Signal 


S 


M 


None 


198.4 
186.2 


161.9 
172.5 


Irregular 


108.0 
144.8 
151. T 
171.0 


87.4 
120.8 
123.3 
155.7 


Regular, 1 second 
interval 


123.4 
122.0 
144.6 
157.0 


118.1 
109.0 
134.0 
143.3 



Table XIV 



Cattell also found that when the time between 
the signal and the stimulus was delayed and 
varied up to 15 seconds, the reaction time was 
lengthened.^* 

(g) Reinforcement. Ideal preparation facili- 
tates attention especially when the image or idea 
corresponds to some aspect in the given situation. 
In a series of tests Miinsterberg showed this con- 
clusively. He used 400 pictures 5 times each, thus 
giving 2,000 exposures. Two seconds before he 
showed a picture to the observer he called out a 
word. The picture was then shown and the sub- 
ject was asked to tell what he saw. Of the 2,000 

^Cattell, James McKeen, 'Psychometrische Untersuchungen,' 
Phil. Stud., 3:333. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 57 

cases, 617, or more than a third, were directly 
influenced by the word called out. The subject 
was not supposed to look for the object in the 
picture, in fact did not know that there was such 
an object as the word represented. In almost 
all of the other cases the picture was seen as a 
whole, or several objects in the picture were seen 
at once. In the 617 cases, on the other hand, a 
single object in the picture was distinctly seen.^® 
The eiFect of ideal reinforcement is very manifest 
in individuals who see 'ghosts,' and in whom 
imagination overrides objective presentations. 
Ideal reinforcement also plays an important part 
in holding some topic in the focus of attention. 
In such cases associations are revived which en- 
able some aspect of the field to persist in the 
field of clearness and distinctness. 

(h) Practice. Practice facilitates attention, 
lack of practice arrests it. One who has had suffi- 
cient practice in a given field can attend more 
easily, more accurately, and more rapidly. In 
continuous work the eff^ects of practice are les- 
sened in part by the increasing fatigue. After a 
rest, however, the eff*ects of practice are shown 
by the higher level of the results. In memorising 

^^ Miinsterberg, Hugo, Experimentellen Psychologic, Heft 
4:12-17. 



58 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



12 place figures for five quarters of an hour 
on four successive days Weygandt obtained the 
following results: 



J hour 


First day 


Third day 


1 


197 


680 


2 


269 


636 


3 


250 


663 


4 


310 


541 


5 


238 


415 



Table XV 




1 2 3 4 

M HOUR 

CuEVE I. Effects of 
fatigue due to con- 
tinued work. (See 
table XV, Third day.) 



The results for the first quarter of an hour on 
each of the four successive days is given in the 
table below. 



First 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


197 


360 


680 


864 



Table XVI 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



59 



900 








800 






/ 


700 
600 

|eoo 

^00 

soo 

200 
100 






/ 




/ 


/ 




/ 






/ 




/ 


1 




/ 






/ 







12 3 4 

DAY 

Curve II. Effects of 
four days' practice. 
(See table XVI.) 



The number of figures memorised in each quar- 
ter of an hour are given. The curves based on 
these tables show the effects of fatigue in one 
day, and the effects of practice on the work of 
the succeeding day.^^ The marking of the letter 
*i' in a text for five successive quarter hours on 
four successive days yielded similar results. 



4 Hour 


First Dat 


Third Day 


1 


12424 


14566 


2 


8176 


13809 


3 


5612 


7560 


4 


6157 


7508 


5 


8876 


7514 



Table XVII 

"Weygandt, Wilhelm, 'Ueber den Einfluss des Arbeitswechsels 
auf fortlaufende geistige Arbeit,' Fsych Arb., 2:118-202. 



60 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 




CuEVB III. Effects of 
fatigue due to continued 
work. (See table XVII, 
Third day.) 



First Day 


Second Day 


Third Day 


Fourth Day 


12424 


13876 


14566 


16078 



Table XVIII 




CuBVB IV. Effects 
of four days' prac- 
tice. (See table 
XVIII.) 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



61 



When the activity is more or less new the rise 
in the curve may be somewhat steep. A level is 
finally reached much below or above which the 
curve does not go. The effect of the practice is 
then at its best. In reading Hungarian text for 
five quarter hour periods for 24 successive days 
(with one day's intermission on the thirteenth 
day), Weygandt obtained the following results 
for the first quarter of an hour on each day. The 
results give the number of syllables read. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


2724 


2716 


2793 


2989 


3027 


2959 


3102 


2803 


3314 


2966 


2968 


3186 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


3320 


3212 


3367 


3368 


3585 


3513 


3656 


3433 


3604 


3512 


3507 


3542 

-4 . 



Table XIX 



4000 



"3000 



2000 




Curve V. Practice curve, 24 days. (See table XIX.) 



(i) Fatigue. Fatigue arrests attention. In 
continuous work, the effects of fatigue are in 
part interfered with by the effects of practice. 
The downward drop in the curves given above 
shows the effects of fatigue produced by the 



62 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



work itself. One who is in a fatigued condition 
similarly does less effective work in new fields. 
An interesting series of experiments was carried 
on by Bettmann. He produced a state of fatigue 
in two ways, first, by one hour's continuous addi- 
tion, and second, by a two hours' tramp. Work 
done while in a fatigued condition was then com- 
pared with similar work done under normal 
condition. The results are indicated below.^^ 
Simple Reaction With Choice 



N 


M 


B 


(T 


E% 


(7 


E% 


o- 


E% 


290 
291 
300 
294 


2.7 
1.7 
3.3 
2.6 


403 
346 
395 
381 


1.3 

0.7 
1.0 
1.0 


264 

288 
231 
257 


24. 
21. 
35. 
26.9 



N.=normal, M.^mental fatigue, B.=:bodily fatigue, <T 
thousandth of a second, E%=:::errors. 

Table XX 

Memorising 12 Place Figures in One Half Hour 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


Ave. 


N 


468 




564 






613 






709 






761 




661 


M 




474 






413 






478 






528 






476 


B 








405 






401 






506 






518 


454 



Table XXI 
^ Bettmann, Siegfried, 'Ueber die Beeinflussung einfacher 
psychischer Vorgange durch korperliche und geistige Arbeit,* 
Psych. Arh., 1:152-208. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 63 

Addition For One Half Hour 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


N 


1662 




1782 






1788 






1961 






1773 




M 




1462 






1532 






1531 






1753 






B 








1502 






1487 






1591 






1704 



Table XXII 
Syllables Read in One Half Hour (2 Periods ^ Hour, I, II) 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 




I 


II 


I 


II 


I 


II 


I 


II 


I 


II 


I 


II 


N 






8484 


8137 










8757 


9812 






M 










7270 


6961 










8072 


8338 


B 


8410 


8294 










8528 


8288 











Table XXIII 

In the last test the mental fatigue was produced 
by one half hour's addition, and the bodily 
fatigue by one half hour's walking. The effects 
of fatigue in these tests is shown (1) by a de- 
crease in reaction time, (2) by an increase in 
error, (3) by a decrease in the number memo- 
rised, and (4) by an arrest of the effects of prac- 
tice. The following curves show the effects of 
practice under normal conditions and the arrest 
of such effects in a condition of fatigue. The 
curves are based on the memory tests. 



64 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



700 








^ 


J600 






/ 




''50,0 


/ 


y' 






1 









D4Y 

CuEVB VI. Normal 
increase due to 
practice. 




11 

DAY -^ 

Ctjevb VII. Inter- 
ference due to 
mental fatigue. 




4. 7 ,10 i3 

'"DAY 

CmiVE Vni. Inter- 
ference due to 
bodily fatigue. 
(See table XXI.) 



The following curve connects the effects of the 
successive tests and shows the drop due to fatigue 
and the rise due to normal conditions. 




Curve IX. Effects of mental (M) and bodily (B) fatigue 
on the normal (N). (See table XXI.) 

(j) Pause. Under some conditions, pause 
with rest is favorable to the work immediately fol- 
lowing, under other conditions it is unfavorable. 
During continuous work, the impulse to work 
gradually decreases, while the fatigue gradually 
increases. A pause with rest should then come 
when the impulse to continue the work is weak. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT €5 

and while the effects of fatigue are strongly in 
evidence. If, however, the impulse to work is 
strong and the fatigue is not great, a pause may 
be unfavorable to good results. The length of 
the pause, too, affects the work immediately fol- 
lowing. If the pause is too long the effects of 
practice may be greatly diminished, and the 
impulse to work may become very weak. If the 
pause is too short the impulse may be interfered 
with and the effects of fatigue may still be strong 
enough to hinder further eff ort.^^ A number of 
experiments show that ( 1 ) a 5 min. pause at the 
end of a half hour's work is favorable, (2) a 
15 min. pause under the same conditions is un- 
favorable, (3) a 15 min. pause at the end of an 
hour's work is favorable, (4) a pause of over a 
day is unfavorable.^^ The general effects of 
pause with rest are ( 1 ) passing away of fatigue, 
(2) weakening of the impulse to work, and (3) 
decrease in the effects of practice.^^ 

^Heiimann, Gustav, 'Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Arbeits- 
dauer und Pausenwirkung,' Psych. Arb., 4:538-602. 

®'Amberg, Emil, 'Ueber den Einfluss von Arbeitspausen auf 
die geistige Leistungsfahigkeit,' Psych. Arb., 1:300-377. 

*°Lindley, Ernest, 'Ueber Arbeit und Ruhe,' Psych. Arb., 
3:482-535. See also Rivers, W. H. R., und Kraepelin, Emil, 
•Ueber Ermiidung und Erholung,' Psych. Arb., 1:627-678. Hylan, 
John P., und Kraepelin, Emil, 'Ueber die Wirkung kurzer Ar- 
beitszeiten,' Psych. Arb., 4:454-494. 

5 



66 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



AVhen the pause is filled with a different kind 
of work the effect on a continuation of the origi- 
nal work depends upon the kind and the difficulty 
of the work interpolated. If the interpolated 
work is of a difficult nature it may interfere with 
the work following. Thus, if memory work is 
interpolated between periods of less difficult 
work, the periods following the interpolated 
work show a decided fall in the results. The fol- 
lowing tables and curves give some indication of 
the effect of such interpolated work. 

Addition. Interpolated Work (Heavy Face Type) Memorising 
OF Nonsense Syllables 



Mhr. 


1 day 


2 day 


3 day 


4 day 


1 


809 


867 


860 


836 


2 


912 


913 


879 


883 


3 


801 


144 


755 


146 


4 


707 


142 


722 


126 


5 


6^58 


678 


775 


687 



Table XXIV 



Addition was of continuous one-place jfigures. Work 
of each day was divided into quarter-hour periods. 
EiFect of the interpolation is shown in the fifth quarter- 
hour iDeriods of the second and fourth days.*^ 

"Weygandt, Wilhelm, 'Ueber den Einfluss des Arbeitswechsels 
auf fortlaufende geistige Arbeit,' Psych. Arb., 2:118-202. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



67 



AnDiTioif. Intebpolated Work (Heavy Face Type) Memorising 
OF 13-Place Figures 



Xhr. 


1 day 


2 day 


3 day 


4 day 


1 


800 


929 


867 


958 


2 


812 


839 


920 


947 


3 


792 


934 


823 


804 


4 


763 


792 


783 


888 


5 


707 


638 


757 


671 



Table XXV 



'900 

0:800 

lU 

'a 

2700 



600 

J. Ji 



-s 



got) 

S80O 

s 

"700 
600 



£■ 

— ^- 



JiJHOUR,- 



1 2 3 4 ^,1 



Curve X. Effect of 
the interpolation of 
diflScult work. Dash 
line shows the drop 
in the la,st period. ( See 
table XXIV, 3 and 4 
days.) 



Curve XI. Effect of 
the interpolation of 
difficult work. Dash 
line shows the drop in 
the last period. (See 
table XXV, 3 and 4 
days.) 



When the interpolated work is less difficult, the 
effect on the work following may be beneficial. 
The following tables and curves show this. 



68 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



Memorisikg of Figitees. Interpolated Work (Heavy Face 
Type ) Addition 



Mhr. 


1 day 


2 day 


3 day 


4 day 


1 


197 


360 


680 


864 


2 


269 


395 


636 


780 


3 


250 


698 


663 


745 


4 


310 


662 


541 


689 


5 


238 


408 


415 


672 



Table XXVI 

Memorising of Nonsense Syilables. Interpolated Work, Slow 
Writing 



X hr. 


1 day 


2 day 


3 day 


4 day 


1 


128 


101 


128 


120 


2 


88 


91 


116 


122 


3 


86 


136 


120 


155 


4 


80 


137 


88 


155 


5 


59 


111 


88 


145 



Table XXVII 



The change in the kind of work is beneficial even 
if such interpolated work is difficult in itself. 
This is shown in the above table, and more con- 
clusively in the one following. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 69 

Markikg a Letter. Interpolated Work, Memorising of Figures 



Xhr. 


1 day 


2 day 


3 day 


4 day 


1 


15556 


14890 


16122 


14473 


2 


18281 


8514 


12456 


11882 


3 


14343 


942 


7832 


1008 


4 


7918 


942 


7355 


1056 


5 


9546 


10884 


6987 


16322 



Table XXVIII 




I 2.^ 3 .4 

}i HOUR 



OuBTE XII. Effect of 
the inteTpolation. of 
easy -work. Dash, line 
shews the rise in the 
last period. (See table 
XXVII.) 



16000 
15000 
14000 
113000 
12000 

iiiooo 

,E 

^10000 
9000 
8000 
7000 

eooo 









/ 

1 


I 




/ 

/ 


t 


\ 




/ 
/ 




\ 


/ 
/ 








( 








\ 








\ 








\ 










\ 


•v 








V, 



K 2 ^ 

*4 HOUR 



OUBVE XIII. Effect of 
the interpolation of dif- 
ferent work. Dash line 
shows the rise in the 
last period. (See table 
XXVIII.) 



The interpolated work, memorising of figures, is 
so different from the basic work, marking a 



70 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

letter in a text, that the interpolation acts ahnost 
like a pause with rest. We may say that inter- 
polated work acts favorably, (1) when it is dif- 
ferent in kind from the basic work, and (2) 
when it is less difficult. It acts unfavorably, ( 1 ) 
when it is the same in kind, and (2) when it is 
more difficult.^^ 

(k) Hunger. A most interesting series of 
tests was made by Weygandt to establish the 
effects of hunger on mental work. He went 
without food for periods of 12, 24, 36, 48, and 72 
hours, and while in this condition went through 
a number of experiments. The results of his 
tests showed (1) that simple apprehension of 
syllables and words was not hindered to any 
great extent, (2) that association time was not 
influenced much, (3) that memorising was 
arrested, (4) that distraction had a greater 
arresting power, and (5) that reaction with 
choice gave a larger number of errors. The 
results of some of his work are given below/^ 

"^Ibid., 123, 133, 136, 139, 142, 144, 147, 152, 155, 157, 161, 
168, 190. 

■•^Weygandt, Wilhelm, 'Ueber die Beeinflussung geistiger 
Leistungen durch Hungern,' Psych. Arb., 4:45-173. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 71 

Memorising of Nonsense Syllables (13 in a Group) 



Day 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 


Time 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


E 


M 


Con. 


N 


N 


12 


24 


(N) 


N 


N 


N 


12 


24 


36 


48 


(N) 


N 


F 


N 


N 


N 


15min. 
I5inin. 


149 
142 


136 
133 


108 
100 


87 
92 


176 

177 


250 
233 


226 
266 


322 
290 


206 
189 


208 
144 


137 
151 


137 
92 


181 
154 


218 
214 


176 
120 


285 
293 


324 

262 


396 
356 


30min. 


291 


269 


208 


179 


353 


483 


492 


612 


395 


352 


288 


229 


335 


432 


296 


578586 


752 



N=:normal, 12, etc.,=hunger for 12 hours, etc., F=mental 
fatigue, E=evening, M=morning, (N)=normal period immedi- 
ately following a period of hunger. 

Table XXIX 



800 



700 



400 



300 



200 



100 

































% 


/ 


































/ 














/ 


\ 














I 


-^ 


/ 






a 

a 

z 




/ 






\ 




fUNGE 


I 




y 


\ 


/ 










X 


/ 


/ 








r- 


N, 




y 


/ 


\ 


/ 








N^ 




/ 












s 


X 


1/ 




\ 


/ 










\, 


r 





























122334^56 

DAY 



6778899 10 



EM EMEMEME MEMEMEM EM 

TIME 

N N 12 24 (N) N N N 12 24 36 48 (N) N F N N N 

COND. 

OUEVE XIV. Effects of hunger. E, evening. M, morning. N, normal, 
12, 24, etc., hunger for 12, 24, etc., hours, (N), normal period after 
hunger. F, mental fatigue. (See table XXIX.) 



72 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



(Z) Obstructed breathing. By means of a 
nostril plug, Kafemann produced interference 
with breathing similar to that caused by adenoids. 
The obstruction in the breathing produced a de- 
crease in the efficiency of the work attempted. 
In the addition of figures the following results 
were secured: 

Addition foe Oste-Qitarter Hour Periods With akd Without 
Obstruction 





Normal 


Normal 


Normal 


Iday 


1306 


1324 


1256 1 1249 


1246 


1323 




Normal 


Obstructed 


Normal 


2 day 


1334 


1213 


1223 1189 


1184 


12T6 




Normal 


Normal 


Normal 


3 day 


1493 


1447 


1430 1399 


1363 


1381 




Normal 


Obstructed 


Normal 


4 day 


1453 


1362 


1356 


1340 


1366 


1421 



Table XXX 



1500 



S.1400 



1300 1 



\, 


■ 

OBSTR. BRE/ 


TH 


y 


\ 








/ 









3 4 

M HOUR 



Curve XV. Effects of ob- 
structed breathing. (See ta- 
ble XXX.) 



On the second and fourth days, a quarter-hour's 
addition under normal conditions was followed 
by an hour's addition with obstructed breathing. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



73 



and this was followed by another quarter-hour's 
addition under normal conditions.** 

(m) Weak mindedness. In general, weak 
mindedness, when compared with the normal, 
shows itself in ( 1 ) increase in error in the appre- 
hension of syllables and words, (2) increase in 
reaction time, and (3) decrease in the amount of 
work done. Reis tested six paralytics (P) , eight 
hebephreniacs, (H), and two normal subjects, 
(N) with the following results. 

Apprehensioit of Nonsense Syllables 





10 mm. 


5 mm. 




R 


W 





R 


W 





N 
H 
P 


96.94 
77.97 
69.45 


2.86 
11.40 

28.82 


0.19 

10.63 

1.73 


93.90 
61.10 
57.98 


5.73 
20.08 
35.85 


0.37 

18.82 

6.17 






One-Syllable 


Words 






N 
H 
P 


96.25 

84.56 

74.44 


3.48 

5.88 
18.30 


0.27 
9.59 
7.36 


9T.25 
71.19 

52.86 


2. 74 

9.50 

14.01 


0. 

19.31 
29.76 



Exposure of 10 mm. gave a time of 670 a, one of 5 mm. gave 
a time of 335 o-. 

Renumber of right cases, W=number of wrong cases, 
0=:number omitted. 

TABI.E XXXI 

**Kafemann, Rudolf, 'Ueber die Beeinflussung geistiger 
Leistungen durch Behinderung der Nasenathmung,' Psych. Arb., 
4:435-453. 



74 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Reaction Times 





N 


H 


P 




Time 


% 


Time 


% 


Time 


% 


Color 
Letter 
Word 
Addition 
Judgment I 
Judgment II 


549 
627 
554 
1071 
931 
862 


100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


720 

709 

69T 

1243 

1074 

1103 


131.2 
113.1 
125.2 
115.1 
115.6 
127.3 


756 

807 

799 

1442 

1434 

1308 


137.7 
128.9 
144.1 
134.6 
154.0 
150.7 



The time is given in sigmas, or thousandths of a second. 

Recognition of a color, letter, and word was timed. 

Addition of two numbers between 1 and 19 was required. 

Judgment I. Subject was required to tell which of two classes, 
'living' or 'dead,' a one-syllable word described. 

Judgment II. Subject was asked whether the word excited a 
pleasant or an unpleasant feeling. 

Table XXXII 
Addition of 7-1-7, etc., in 1 Minute 



N 


H 


P 


32.2 


29.2 


30.9 



Addition of 12-|-12, etc., in 1 Minute 



25.9 



22.6 



22.3 



Table XXXIII 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 75 

The afflicted subjects showed greater fatigue 
and less practice effects. The paralytics were 
least efficient in this respect.*^ 

(n) Extraneous stimulation. When two ac- 
tivities are in the same field or in related fields, 
one will tend to arrest the other. Vogt recited 
a poem orally, and at the same time added single 
figures without writing down the answers. He 
found some difficulty in retaining the sums in his 
memory. Interference was also felt with the 
muscular-acoustic images of the sums, and there 
was eye-strain due to an effort to visualise the 
sums. During the first day only oral rendition 
of the poem was attempted. On the second and 
third days addition of figures was included dur- 
ing the second half hour of the work. The ratios 
of the number of syllables recited with and with- 
out interference is given in the last column. The 
results of the tests are as f ollows.^^ 

^Reis, Joseph, 'Ueber einfache psychologische Versuche an 
Gesunden und Geisteskranken,' Psych. Arb., 2:587-694. See also 
Cron, Ludwig, und Kraepelin, Emil, 'Ueber die Messung der 
Auffassungsfahigkeit,' Psych. Arb., 2:203-325. 

*® Vogt, Ragnar, 'Ueber Ablenbarkeit und Gewohnungf ahigkeit,' 
Psych. Stud., 3:62-201. 



76 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Oeal Recitation With Addition 





l(X) 


KX) 


n(M) 


n(X) 


III 


I:II::100 


1 

3 


1325 
1574 
1595 


122T 
1502 
1467 


1269 
596 
680 


1215 
530 
620 


1180 
1104 
1362 


95.5 
36.7 
42.5 



Table XXXIV 




CuEVE XVI. Effects of 
extraneous stimulation. 
(See table XXXIV.) 

Another series of tests included reading and 
writing, separately and together. In the follow- 
ing table, the first column gives the number of 
letters written in five minutes, the second the 
number of syllables spoken in five minutes, and 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



77 



the third the number of letters written, together 
with the number of syllables read while the writ- 
ing was going on. The ratios are given in the 
last columns. 



Reading With Writing 



Day 


W 


R 


W+ R 


W:W::100: 


R:R::100: 


1 


857 


3502 


570+1739 


66.5 


48.6 


2 


878 


3740 


753+2273 


85.9 


60.9 


3 


903 


3693 


786+2280 


87.0 


61.7 


4 


926 


3788 


828+2459 


89.4 


64.9 


5 


941 


3872 


904+2679 


96.1 


69.2 



Table XXXV 

It is to be noted that during the third periods, 
more work was done, but each was somewhat 
arrested. In crossing out letters Vogt found 
that he made more errors and marked less letters 
with a text having meaning than with nonsense 
words. The meaning of the text acted as an 
arresting influence.^^ 

When stimulation is in two fields not closely- 
related, excitation in the one may facilitate atten- 
tion in the other. Darlington and Talbot found 
that while music was played on a piano during 
the lifting of weights, there was better discrimi- 
nation than when no music was played. So, too, 

*^ See also Kleinknecht, H., 'The Interference of Optical 
Stimuli,' Harvard Psychological Studies, 2:299-308. 



78 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Moyer concludes from a series of experiments 
that visualisation of colors, hearing of sounds 
made by falling balls, and the smelling of odors 
are not arrested by such processes as adding, 
writing, and the like. In these tests the criterion 
of arrest was error. There was no record of 
time. Some arrest may have occurred in the 
increase of time due to the added activity. Even 
though there were no more errors in the tests, 
there might have been an increase in the time 
needed to discriminate the weights, recognise the 
odors, add, etc.^^ 

In retinal rivalry, one figure in the stereoscope 
may be considered as an influence which ar- 
rests the other. When the figure has some 
content it tends to hold the field longer than one 
which is empty, i.e.^ to arrest the simpler figure 
for a longer time. Breese recorded the time 
during which each of a number of figures held 
the attention. His results are given in the table 
below.^^ 

*' Darlington, L., and Talbot, E. B., 'Distraction by Musical 
Sounds,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 9:332-345. Moyer, F. E., 'Addi- 
tion and Cognate Exercises: Discrimination of Odors,' Ibid., 
8:405-413. Birch, L. G., 'Distraction by Odors,' Ibid., 9:44-55. 
Swift, E. J., 'Disturbance of the Attention during Simple Mental 
Processes,' Ibid., 5:1-19. 

*^ Breese, B. B., 'On Inhibition,' Psych. Rev., Man. Sup., 
3:1-65. 



*» 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 



79 



Experiments 



Red, per cent of 
times seen 



Green, per cent 
of times seen 



No. of changes 
for each field 





1 


30 


70 


19 


2 


32 


08 


27 


3 


27 


73 


18 


4 


28 


72 


23 






5 


21 


79 


21 


6 


36 


64 


20 


7 


27 


73 


21 


8 


30 


70 


21 




9 


34 


66 


19 


10 


23 


77 


22 


11 


24 


76 


20 




12 


43 


67 


25 


13 


42 


58 


25 


14 


45 


55 


33 


15 


50 


50 


27 




16 


57 


43 


22 


17 


59 


41 


29 


18 


52 


48 


21 


19 


52 


48 


24 







,@ 



20 


39 


61 


26 


21 


40 


60 


31 


22 


53 


47 


25 


23 


49 


51 


27 



Table XXXVI 



80 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

In experiments 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, 
22, and 23, the fields were reversed. 

§ ii. illustration 

1. Clearness^ Distinctness^ Persistence. 

(a) Literary. 

It was such a crowded scene, and there were so many 
objects to attract attention, that at first Nicholas stared 
about him, really without seeing anything at all. By 
degrees, however, the place resolved itself into a bare and 
dirty room with a couple of windows, whereof a tenth 
part might be of glass, the remainder being stopped up 
with old copybooks and paper. There were a couple of 
old rickety desks, cut and notched, and inked and dam- 
aged, in every possible way ; two or three forms, a 
detached desk for Squeers, and another for his assistant. 
The ceiling was supported like that of a barn, by cross 
beams and rafters, and the walls were so stained and 
discoloured, that it was impossible to tell whether they 
had ever been touched with paint or whitewash. — Nicho- 
las NicMeby, Dickens. 

Suddenly I perceive on my right, not far from me, a 
large dark object which I had not noticed before, and 
which is lightly and noiselessly approaching my ambush 
and the watering-place. Without a halt the dark, 
mighty mass comes nearer and still nearer. Now I can 
plainly see that there are two objects, one in front of 
the other. They stand opposite me, not more than one 
hundred and fifty paces off. They are rhinoceroses, full- 
grown ones, coming here to drink. How gigantic they 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 81 

look by moonlight! — Flashlights m the Jungle, C. G. 
Schillings. 

(b) Experimental, 

Look for the 'man in the moon.' Note the process of 
differentiation, selection, etc. 

Follow some instrument in an orchestra. Compare its 
sound with that of the other instruments. 

Strike the chord c-e-g strongly upon the piano key- 
board, directing the attention to the c. Is it intensified? 
Strike the chord again, directing the attention to the e 
or g. Is the tone attended-to intensified?^*' 

2. Fluctuation. 

Rotate a white disc similar to the illustration below. 
Fixate the faintest grey ring. Observe the fluctuations 
in intensity.^^ 




Fia. V 
■^Titchener, E. B,, Experimental Psychology, l:Pt. I, 111. 
" Myers, C. S., A Text-Book of Experimental Psychology, 415. 
6 



82 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



Fixate some point on be in the following figure. What 
is the appearance of the figure? Move the eye slowly 
from b to e, and back again. Does the figure change in 
perspective? Move the eye from b to c, and back again. 
Is there any change? Fixate any point on line be. 
Note whether the line is in front of or behind line ac.^^ 




Fia. VI 

Select a piece of cork which can barely be felt when 
resting on the back of the hand. Note whether or not 
there is any fluctuation in the pressure. 

3. Unity. 

Look at each of the following groups of lines. Is 
there any difference when you look at them as a group, 
(a two-group, or a three-group, or a four-group), and 
when you look at them as two, three, or four individual 
lines ? 



"« Titchener, E. B., Ibid., 154. 



„ 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 

I 



83 



Pig. VII 

Look at the following series of lines. Is there any 
grouping? Note the different groupings. 



r 



Fig. VIII 
Fixate the figure below. Note the different units 
which shape themselves. Are the elements of each group 
seen as a group or as Individuals .f* Look at the dots In 
each group separately. Look at them as a group. 
What is the difference between the two acts of attention .'^^^ 




Fig. IX 
»« McDougall, W., 'The Physiological Factors of the Attention 
Process,' III, Mind, N. S., 12:4,87. 



84 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Read a page visually (silent reading), and note the 
time. Read the same page visually, attending to the 
letters and not to the words. Note the time. Note the 
difference in the groupings. Are the words seen as single 
words or as aggregations of separate letters.*' 

4. Facilitation and Aerest. 

With proper laboratory equipment, any of the ex- 
periments described in the preceding section can be 
repeated. For purposes of illustration, simpler ones can 
be tried. 

{a) Simplicity versus complexity. 

Place two figures in a stereoscope, one simple, one com- 
plex. Note the difference in the time in which each holds 
the attention. (The figures used by Breese are good. 
See above, Table XXVI). 

Why does it take longer to read the words of a page, 
than to read the letters of the same page? 

(h) Time. 

Read the words of a page and note the time. Try 
to read two pages within the same time. What will be 
the result.'' 

Mark all the a's In a text for a period of fifteen min- 
utes. Try to mark the same number in eight minutes. 
Note the result, with reference to (1) number of letters 
marked, (2) number of errors, (3) number of letters 
skipped. 

(c) Age. 
Let children of different ages read for five minutes. 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 85 

Count the number of syllables read by each child and 
compare these numbers with the ages of the children. 
Repeat Griffing's tests. 

(d) Preadjustment. 

Let children add single figures read out to them, with 
signal, and without, (Some signal, as 'Ready,' or 'At- 
tention,' may be used.) Give such sums with (1) regular 
signals, (2) irregular signals, (3) no signals and irregu- 
larly or suddenly. Note the difference in the results. 

(e) Reinforcement. 

Repeat Munsterberg's experiment. 

(/) Practice. 

Mark a's for fifteen minutes in the morning and fifteen 
minutes in the afternoon of each of ten successive days. 
Compare the numbers marked and plot the corresponding 
curve. On the eleventh day, read some text and note the 
appearance of the a as compared with the other letters. 

(g) Fatigue. 

Mark «'s for an hour or an hour and a half, and note 
the number marked every five or ten minutes. Plot the 
corresponding curve. 

Produce fatigue by an hour's continuous addition, 
and read for half an hour. Count the number of sylla- 
bles read. Read for half an hour at the same time on 
the next day when not fatigued. Compare the results. 
Mark letters for half an hour under similar conditions. 
Memorise poetry. Produce fatigue by a two-hours' 
tramp, and repeat the experiments. Compare the results. 



86 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

(h) Pause. 

Mark a's for two hours. On the following day repeat 
the test, but rest for five minutes at the end of each half 
hour. Compare the results. Vary the periods of pause 
and the periods of work. Add figures, memorise non- 
sense syllables, etc., under similar conditions. 

Mark a's half an hour, read for half an hour, mark a's 
again, and follow with half an hour's reading, in con- 
tinuous periods of half an hour each for a period of 
two and a half hours. Make the periods of work and 
rest fifteen minutes each. Compare the results with 
those obtained in marking a's for two and a half hours 
without the interpolated reading. Use a day for each 
experiment. Alternate marking a's with marking ^'s, 
with memorising, with continuous addition, etc. Use any 
of these occupations as basic, and interpolate any other. 
Note which facilitate and which arrest the basic work. 

{i) Extraneous stimulation. 

Read some passage visually for one minute, and at 
the same time repeat the multiplication table of 7's. 
Note the time which it takes to repeat each separately. 
Compare the resulting times. 

Write a passage from a book and at the same time 
multiply the numbers from 5 on, by 13 for three min- 
utes. Note the time necessary to do each separately. Is 
the total time greater or less than three minutes.'' 

Repeat Vogt's experiments. 

(j) General. 

Test underweight children, overweight children, back- 
ward children, defective children, etc.. Let them cross 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 87 

out letters for a given period, add columns of figures, 
divide, write, read, etc., and note (1) the time, (2) the 
amount of work done, and (3) the errors. 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

The general change in a field under fixation is 
from indistinctness to distinctness and from ob- 
scureness to clearness. In attention to any 
totality, the dim background gradually falls 
away and leaves the situation clear and distinct. 
Further manipulation and control results in a 
differentiation of parts, in greater systematisa- 
tion and order, in an increase of clearness. The 
process, in short, is from discreteness to unity. 

In the passage from childhood to adolescence, 
and then to adult life, there is an increase in the 
grasp of attention at any given moment, and a 
greater ability to hold attention for a longer 
period of time. The tests of Grifiing show the 
development in the grasp of attention and 
Messmer's tests in reading indicate a similar 
development. As children grow older they are 
able to grasp more at a given moment, and to do 
this within less time. 

§ IV. EXPLANATION 

1. Biological. Reaction, adjustment and 
control are not effective vitally unless there is a 



88 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

more or less distinct field before the organism. 
The essential aspect of a situation, the stimulating 
part of the field, the pleasure-pain feature of an 
environment must be singled out and selected if 
the individual is to persist as an individual. On 
this account every part of the organism strains 
to further the production of distinctness in the 
essential aspect of any background. The bull- 
dog jumps for his enemy's throat. The deer 
turns his head towards a light, or a noise. Fail- 
ure in selection may mean death. The surgeon 
who marks the place where he is to operate, and 
carefully removes tissue, avoids blood vessels, 
and inserts a forceps or a knife, is an example 
emphasising the same thing. 

In social and economic control, progress in 
any field is similarly the result of selection and 
specialisation. A situation is first dealt with in 
a more or less general way, differentiation is 
gradually efi'ected, and then, piece by piece, the 
situation is attacked, analysed, studied, recon- 
structed, and again united in a more highly 
developed form. The development of factories, 
branch stores, special departments, offices, agents, 
etc., is characteristic of present-day life. 

2. Psychological, (a) Clearness^ distinct- 
ness ^ and persistence. The distinctness, etc., of 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 89 

a situation is due to two sets of influences, ( 1 ) ob- 
j active, and (2) subjective. Some of the more 
important of the objective conditions which give 
rise to clearness and distinctness are (1) differ- 
ence, (2) change, (3) pleasure-pain, and (4) 
time. An impression differing greatly from 
those concomitant with it will tend to attract 
attention. The effects of difference in the in- 
tensity of impressions has been experimentally 
shown.^* Common observation points to the 
same. A loud noise, a sudden report, a straw hat 
in winter, a cooling breeze on a hot day, the note 
of a piccolo or the clang of a triangle in an 
orchestra, these attract the attention. Change 
or variety also tends to stimulate and hold the 
attention. An object which is more complex may 
cause the attention to persist for a longer time. 
A simpler object may be more readily cognised, 
but its holding powers are not so strong. Pleas- 
ure-pain excites attention as already indicated 
in the preceding section. Finally, when more 
time is allowed, the development of clearness and 
distinctness are facilitated. 

Of the more important subjective factors 
which facihtate clearness, distinctness, and per- 
sistence are (1) preadjustment, (2) reinforce- 

•^See above, page 50. 



90 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

ment, (3) practice, (4) pause (rest), (5) age, 
and (6) natural vitality and mental ability. 
When one expects an impression and is ready to 
receive it, the organs, muscles, etc., are set in a 
certain direction. There is less waste in reaction 
and the field does not become blurred or indis- 
tinct through wrong or inadequate adjustments. 
When there is ideal reinforcement, the incoming 
impression is received by a disposition or system 
of images or ideas. By association, the impres- 
sion is enabled to persist in the series of images 
or ideas revived. Attention to a time-table is an 
example of such persistence. Practice facilitates 
attention in that there is little waste. The situa- 
tion and the organism fit each other. The organic 
set of the individual corresponds so closely to the 
different aspects of the situation, that the latter 
is enabled to flash into the focus of consciousness 
at once. Rest allows all the other factors to 
operate in their full strength. An older indi- 
vidual is better able to attend since his wider 
experience is accountable for more perfect prac- 
tice, more highly organised mental dispositions 
and systems, and a more economical distribution 
of energy. 

(b) Fluctuation. By considerable experi- 
mentation, the following facts have been ascer- 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 91 

tained in connection with physiological changes : 

(1) Blood pressure sinks with every inspira- 
tion and rises with every expiration, though such 
concomitance is not exactly synchronous. 

(2) Several such movements are contained 
in a larger rhythm, the so-called Traube-Hering 
wave. 

(3) Sensory stimulation tends to affect 
respiration and increase the length of the Traube- 
Hering waves. 

(4) Fatigue, as evidenced by diurnal changes, 
tends to shorten the Traube-Hering waves. 

(5) Pathological conditions, either natural 
(abnormal depression) or artificial (stimulation 
by alcohol), tend to shorten the Traube-Hering 
waves and to induce fatigue. 

These vasomotor rhythms are controlled by a 
system of vasomotor nerves which have their cen- 
tre in the cervical region and which control 
constriction and dilation of the blood vessels. 
The rhythmic rise and fall of blood pressure is 
measured by the rhythm in the rise and fall of the 
volume of the arm or finger. 

By laboratory tests the following facts have 

^^ American Text-Book of Physiology, 1:201. Howell, William 
H., A Text-Book of Physiology, Ch. XXXII. 



92 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

been ascertained with reference to fluctuation of 
attention to minimal stimuli: 

(1) Fluctuations of attention have a rhythm 
in which periods of brightest vision, for example, 
are succeeded by periods of dimmer vision. 

(2) These waves correspond closely to 
Traube-Hering waves, and approximately with 
changes in respiration. 

(3) Sensory stimulation tends to increase the 
periods of distinctness and illumination while in- 
creasing the length of the Traube-Hering waves. 

(4) Fatigue, as evidenced by diurnal changes, 
tends to decrease the periods of distinctness and 
illumination, while decreasing the length of the 
Traube-Hering waves. 

(5) Pathological conditions affect the rhythm 
of fluctuation as they do the rhythm of the 
Traube-Hering waves. 

In attention to minimal impressions, the fluctu- 
ations are in all probability conditioned by vaso- 
motor and respiratory changes. In part, fatigue 
of end organs and fluctuation of muscles of 
accommodation operate in causing fluctuation. 
In attention which is conditioned in part by 
accommodations of end organs and by ideal rein- 
forcement, fluctuation does not exist in a pure 
state. In such a case it may be controlled in part 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 93 

by ideal and motor elements. This may happen 
in the case of retinal rivalry or in attention to 
such complex figures as Schroder's stair figure 
or Necker's cube. 

In fluctuation, the changes in vasomotor action 
and respiration are normal physiological changes 
which condition attention to minimal stimuli and 
aif ect the periodicity of efficiency as shown in the 
fluctuations. It should be noted that such 
changes are not the ones which result when active 
control of a situation is attempted. Changes 
which follow active control and attention are the 
result of attention in such a case and not the 
conditioning substratum. Fluctuation of atten- 
tion is a most interesting problem for in it we 
have attention in its purest state and as close to 
a general power in a sensory field as can be 
found. In a more advanced stage, attention is 
conditioned by acquired ideal and motor elements 
which further persistence, and guide attention 
one way or the other. Individual instincts and 
capacities also direct attention into special fields. 
It might be of interest to see whether or not per- 
sistence in any special field can be measured by 
the length of the periods of distinctness in fluc- 
tuation waves, and by Traube-Hering rhythms. 

ii^c) Unity. Since efficiency of control is 



94 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

facilitated by narrowing and specialising a given 
field, unity will tend to be selected in preference 
to distribution of attention. Moreover, complete 
control is possible only when a given totality is 
presented as a unitary whole. We have but a 
single body with which to take an attitude, a 
single pair of hands with which to work and 
manipulate an object or situation. The visual 
field, too, holds objects together in an elliptical 
form which may become further narrowed in 
motor control. Finally, when too many objects 
strive to hold the focus of attention, there results 
a feeling of strain, of unrest, of dissatisfaction, 
even of pain. On this account there will be a 
tendency to shut out such disturbing situations, 
and to seek or construct more simple and unified 
ones. It is a remarkable fact that most systems 
of philosophy seek to find some universal prin- 
ciple, law, ground, etc., which will explain the 
multiplicity of events. The tendency to explain 
things by simple reasons, and to connect phe- 
nomena through analogy is probably due to the 
same cause. Unity gives ease, rest, and satisfac- 
tion, and so is sought even when the seeking dis- 
torts truth. 

The apparent discreteness in the field of visual 
attention in which from three to five objects seem 



THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT 95 

to be discriminated at a single glance is due 
probably to retentiveness, development, and suc- 
cessive acts of attention upon memory images. 
Young children are not able to grasp as many 
objects at a single glance as are older children, 
and when the time of exposure of the objects is 
shortened, fewer are seen at once. When an 
individual sees four objects, he sees not four indi- 
vidual objects, but a group which is associated 
with 'fourness.' From long experience with 
such groups, e.g., four corners, four fingers, etc., 
they come to mean 'four' to him. The associa- 
tion is one of words and meaning. Without such 
experience, as in the case of children, apprehen- 
sion of objects becomes narrowed to one or two. 
When the objects are grouped they are seen as 
a 'four' group, a 'five' group, and the like. Prac- 
tice will enable an individual to visualise groups 
containing a much larger number of objects. 
In the case of auditory fields, the rhythm 
probably takes the place of the visual group. 
The rhythm is apprehended as a whole, and by 
experience associated with 'four' or 'eight,' etc., 
as the case may be. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT OF 
ATTENTION 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

1. Ideal. An impression in itself has little 
lasting power. It passes into consciousness and 
flits out without remaining long in the focus of 
attention. But little experience, however, is 
necessary to modify the pristine purity of im- 
pressions and to give them meaning one way or 
the other. Connections are made, ideal disposi- 
tions are formed, a mental set is developed, and 
what was originally a lone sensation is soon 
seized arid held within the field of consciousness 
by the mental setting which has been acquired. 
Such ideal reinforcement may take the form 
of simple assimilation or of free association. 
Whichever be the case, the impression is lifted 
into the focus of consciousness and held there by 
ideal traces and dispositions. 

{a) Fusion, assimilation and complication} 

*See Herbart, Johann Friedrich, Sammt. Werke, herausge- 
geben von G. Hartenstein, 5:21-24, or A Text-Book in Psychology, 
Eng. tr. by M. K. Smith, Ch. III. Wundt, W., Grund. d. Phys. 
Psych., Ch. XIX, § 2. 

96 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 9T 

Each of these three forms of association deals 
with single moments of conscious apprehension. 
The incoming impression meets with ideal dis- 
positions, and together these form a single per- 
ception, image, or idea. Fusion may be intensive, 
as in the case of sounds and feelings, or extensive, 
as in the case of visual and tactile impressions. 
In the former case a number of separate ele- 
ments, as fundamental and overtones, are com- 
bined into a single complex called a tone. In 
the latter case visual elements as such, and motor 
elements are combined to give perceptions of 
distance, space and the like. 

In assimilation, revived elements reinforce an 
impression, round it out, and give it meaning. 
A few strokes, for example, will outline the 
features of a known personage, while the begin- 
ning of a familiar word is usually all that is 
necessary to bring the whole to mind. The nu- 
merous proof reader's errors are an indication 
of such assimilation. Fluctuation of the more 
complex figures as the cube or the staircase may 
also be controlled in part by it. 

Complication is a loose form of simultaneous 
association and may at times pass over into free 
association. Thus, attention to a piece of silk 
may excite the feel of it, and the sight of water 

. 7 



98 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

may revive the impression of wetness. A view 
of a knife, too, may rouse tendencies to use it, 
or the thought of some action may call up ten- 
dencies to motor control. Such associations may 
be concomitant with the impression or idea. If 
attention persists, such impressions or ideas may 
unroll into a train of thought or a series of 
reactions. 

(b) Free revival. A situation may excite 
an image, idea, or a series of ideas. Each in 
turn will reinforce aspects of the situation in the 
focus of attention and will keep it in the field 
of clearness and distinctness. The field in the 
focus of control may rouse images of previous 
events connected with it, or of surroundings in 
which it was experienced. It may revive an 
ideal system to which it belongs, or ideas of other 
situations to which it is a means, and which it 
may help to realise. As idea after idea rises and 
reinforces aspects of the situation under con- 
trol, attention to the situation in question per- 
sists. The more ideal connections which can be 
made, the longer will attention persist. Thus, 
one may take a time-table and examine it for a 
considerable time. The words and figures in 
themselves can not hold the attention. But as 
they are connected with persons, events, places, 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 99 

memory images, and too often with the products 
of the imagination, they hold the centre of the 
attention field. 

Considerable laboratory work has been done 
for the purpose of finding the forms of asso- 
ciation which are possible in such ideal revival. 
It is found that a situation tends to revive an 
idea or an image of another situation with which 
it coexisted, or with which it is connected by 
some relation or series of relations. The former 
gives what is called synchronous association, or 
association by contiguity in time or place, the 
latter gives what is called association by simi- 
larity, cause and effect, purpose, design, or what 
not. Before giving a logical classification of 
situations which are represented by the revived 
images and ideas which act as reinforcing agents, 
it is necessary for one clearly to set forth what 
such a classification means. The terms *con- 
tiguity,' 'similarity,' 'purpose,' etc., refer not to 
the ideas or images, but to the given situation, 
and the other situations with which it is or was 
connected in some way. Thus, if one attends to 
a book, and recalls bygone days when friends 
and companions were near by, the contiguity of 
such situations is in question, and not the con- 
tiguity of the ideas or images. So, too, if one 



100 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

recalls a book like the one attended to, the image 
refers to a similar book. The similarity is a rela- 
tion existing between the objects and not between 
the ideas. The reason for such revival will be 
explained in a following section. Somewhat to 
anticipate, it may be noted that any contiguity or 
continuity of cerebral elements which underlies 
the ideal succession is very different from the 
contiguity of the situations when first experi- 
enced. 

Keeping in mind that the classification which 
is given below refers to forms of association, and 
to relations which are possible between situations, 
one may have any of the following : 

I. OF THINGS 
1. Quantitative 

(a) Time (b) Space 

Succession Contiguity 

Duration Distance 

Simultaneity Direction 

2. Qualitative 

Substance and Attribute 

Whole and Part 

Genus and Species 

3. Foemal 
Causality Contrast 

Similarity Purpose or Design 

Signification or Meaning 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 101 



Subordinate 
Subject 
Employee 
Worker 
Child 
Etc.'' 



II. OF PERSONS 

1. Superior 2. Equal 3. 

Ruler Ruler-ruler 

Employer Sub j ect-sub j ect 

Supervisor Worker-worker 

Parent Parent-parent 

Etc. Etc. 

(c) Deliberative. When a situation excites 
a number of attitudes which prevent immediate 
control, the individual selects various aspects of 
the situation in question, thinks them over, refers 
to past experiences, to authority, etc., weighs 
evidence, and either decides one way or the other, 
or leaves the question unsettled. From the psy- 
chological point of view we say that there exists 
a conflict of ideas and motives, that there is 
present deliberation and choice. All the while 
that deliberation is going on, it is evident that 
the situation in question persists in the centre 

^Some of the above classification has been suggested by 
Professor J. E. Lough, of New York University. See also 
Thorndike, E. L., 'Animal Intelligence,' Psych. Rev,, Mon. Sup., 
4:65-109. For a number of other classifications see Trautscholdt, 
M., 'Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber die Association der 
Vorstellungen,' Phil. Stud., 1. Wundt, W., Grund., 3:Ch. XIX. 
Cattell, J. McKeen, and Bryant, S., 'Mental Association Investi- 
gated by Experiment,' Mind, 14. Calkins, M, W., 'Association, An 
Essay Analytic and Experimental,' Psych. Rev., Mon. Sup., 2. 
Claparfede, E., L'Association des IdSes. A summary of classifica- 
tions will be found in Arnold, F., 'The Psychology of Association,' 
Arch, of Phil., Psych, and Sci. Meth., 3. 



102 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

of control. An individual who must pay the 
instalment on a mortgage and who is looking 
for means to collect the necessary money, is an 
example in point. 

When conflict in deliberation is strong, and 
attention is more or less intense, feelings of 
strain arise. These feelings are felt especially 
about the head and eyes. With older psycholo- 
gists this is sometimes mistaken as a sign of 
some general activity of attention or will which 
is supposed to stand over and above the process 
directing selection and choice. That such strain 
is due to peripheral stresses is shown by the fol- 
lowing facts: 

(1) Feeling of effort arises when there is 
conflict in deliberation, or when, in the process 
of attempted control, accommodation is inade- 
quate, i.e., when attention is not wholly effective. 
When attention is more effective, such feelings 
of strain tend to disappear. It is the problem 
which baflles, the situation which is troublesome, 
the flux of impossible conditions, etc., which cause 
worry and strain. 

(2) If an individual strains his right arm in 
attempting to raise an object, he will feel a 
strain on the right side of his head. This would 
not be the case if the feeling of strain depended 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 103 

upon psychophysical conditions. In such a case, 
they would be felt on the left side.^ 

(3) Increase in the intensity of attention is 
not always accompanied by more intense feelings 
of strain and effort. When one is beginning a 
task, or is attempting something new, or is tak- 
ing up work long since forgotten, the preliminary 
adjustments excite more intense feelings of 
strain than later control. As control becomes 
more effective, and as attention increases in ef- 
ficiency, feelings of effort tend to become less. 

(4) One can produce the feeling of strain 
artificially. If one contracts the forehead in- 
tensely for a time, makes the scalp tense about 
the frontal region, and if possible draws the ears 
back, a feeling of strain will be noticed much like 
feelings of strain in mental deliberation. After 
concentrated mental work, the feeling of strain 
and incipient fatigue can be aggravated by these 
means. In all this, what is denied is not the ex- 
istence of any psychophysical activity, but only 
its appearance, as such, in the realm of sensation. 
In referring to attention as selecting, discrimi- 
nating, and the like, what one means is not some 
special activity, but the activity of the individual 
in attempting fuller control. His motor adjust- 

' Miinsterberg, H., Die Willenshandlung , 73. 



104 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

ments and innervations, his ideas and images 
which reinforce incoming sensations, these, taken 
together, result in discrimination and produce 
clearness and distinctness. 

2. Ceeebral. In outlining the cerebral con- 
comitants of mental activity, one must consider 
the ideal elements in connection with the motor. 
The functional unit is not sensory alone, but 
sensorimotor. In dealing with the psychological 
aspect, one may consider ideal and sensory ele- 
ments apart from motor for purposes of discus- 
sion, but in treating the nervous substratum, the 
sensorimotor unit is best described by present- 
ing it as it is, a connected whole. 

(a) Refleoj. The simplest sensorimotor arc 
is the reflex arc. A sensory stimulus is conducted 
by means of a sensory neuron to the posterior 
root of the spinal column, transferred to the 
anterior horn, and then is carried by means of 
one or more motor neurones to a muscle. This 
is the process which takes place at the level of 
the spinal column. The incoming stimulation 
proceeds by way of what are called afferent 
nerve fibres, the outgoing by way of efferent 
nerve fibres. Such an arc is made somewhat 
more complex by collateral fibres which branch 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 105 



out from the nerves and connect the different 
cells. The sensory fibres which enter the pos- 
terior roots may pass upwards and give off a 
number of collaterals, or they may connect with 
intermediate cells which in turn are connected 
with motor neurones. The process, however, is 
always a sensorimotor one. 




Fig. X. Reflex arc. S, sensory; M, motor. 

Facilitation of motor reaction occurs when two 
or more sensory stimulations discharge into the 
same motor system. Inhibition or arrest occurs 
when two conflicting motor systems are simul- 
taneously excited. The successful system in all 
probability then drains or diverts the energy ex- 
cited by the stimulus which tended to excite the 
inhibited motor response. If, for example, sa 



106 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

and sbj, two sensory stimuli, excite ma and mhj, 
two motor nervous systems, mb may succeed in 
draining the energy excited in ma for its own 
use. This is a probable explanation of physio- 
logical inhibition or arrest.^ Inhibition of spinal 
response may also be effected by cerebral activ- 
ity. Paths already made by previous experiences 
in the cerebrum lead the energy generated by the 
stimulus into higher levels, and so change the 
nature of the response. 

Skeletal arcs are connected with visceral arcs. 
The latter control respiration, heart-beat, dila- 
tion of arteries, etc. Reflex processes, besides 
terminating in an external motor response, may 
effect organic changes, as, changes in respiration, 
constriction of arteries, variation in heart-beat, 
and the like. Connections in the spinal cord 
between skeletal and visceral sensorimotor arcs 
are made by means of collateral fibres. In ad- 
dition to connecting with motor nerve fibres, the 
sensory excitation may pass upwards and leave a 
trace in the cerebrum. The motor response may 
likewise be reflected back to a cerebral centre. 
Further connection is then made between the 
motor and sensory centres. It is this which gives 
a basis for higher, cerebral development. 

*See McDougall, W., Physiological Psychology, 37. 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 107 
[ 







Fig. XI. Sensimotor unit. 
(After McDougal, Mind, 
N. S., 12, 486.) 

Sensorimotor arcs of the spinal level, in gen- 
eral, are characterised by ( 1 ) the relatively great 
constancy and regularity of their response to 
sensory stimuli, (2) their general vagueness and 
indistinctness in the field of consciousness, (3) 
their great freedom from interference or arrest 
by the activity of higher levels, and in many 
instances of their own level, and (4) their de- 
pendence upon sensory stimulation.® 

(6) Cerebral. An important point to be noted 

"See McDougall, W., 'The Physiological Factors of the Atten- 
tion Process,' Mind, 11:341. 



108 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

in the structure of higher cerebral levels is that 
the single cells are essentially of the same nature 
as those of the spinal level, that is, that they 
are sensorimotor. 

Every part of the cortex receives incoming impulses 
and gives rise to outgoing impulses. Every part of the 
cortex is, therefore, both a termination of some afferent 
path and the beginning of some efferent path; it is, in 
other words, a reflex arc of a greater or less degree of 
complexity. We may suppose that every efferent dis- 
charge from any part of the cortex is occasioned by 
afferent impressions reaching that point from some other 
part of the nervous system. Whether or not there is 
such a thing as spontaneous mental activity cannot be 
determined by physiology, but on the anatomical side at 
least, all the structures exhibit connections that fit them 
for reflex stimulation, and many of our apparently 
spontaneous acts must be of this character.^ 

A second important feature in the structure 
of the cerebral level is the complexity and rich- 
ness of the connections of the neurones. 

This anatomical fact would indicate that the greater 
mental activity in the higher animals is dependent, in 
part, upon the richer interconnection of the nerve cells, 
or, 'expressed physiologically, our mental processes are 
characterised by their more numerous and complex asso- 
ciations. A visual or auditory stimulus that, in the frog 

» HoweU, W. H., Phys., 177. 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 109 

for instance, may call forth a comparatively simple 
motor response, may in man, on account of the numerous 
associations with the memory records of the past experi- 
ences, lead to psychical and motor responses of a much 
more intricate and indirect character/ 

In such a case, impressions start nervous im- 
pulses which instead of passing out immediately 
by way of the spinal cord, enter the cerebral loop 
and receive further direction there. The im- 
pulse proceeds then in the following order: (1) 
peripheral sense organ, (2) afferent nerve fibre, 
(3) spinal sensory cell, (4) afferent tract, (5) 
cortical sensory cell, (6) commissural fibre, (7) 
cortical motor cell, (8) efferent tract, (9) spinal 
motor cell, (10) efferent nerve fibre, and (11) 
muscle or peripheral end organ.^ 

The sensorimotor portion of the cerebrum con- 
sists of a number of more or less definitely local- 
ised centres. Among these are (1) the body 
sense area, (2) the visual centre, (3) the auditory 
centre, (4) the gustatory centre, (5) the speech 
centre, and (6) the motor area. Arcs of the 
cerebral level are characterised by (1) a less 
stable and fixed organisation, i.e., by a great 
variability in the direction of nervous discharge, 

'Ibid., 178-179. 

« Waller, A. D., An Int. to Hum. Phys., Ch. VIII. 



IIQ ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

(2) the increase in complexity and richness of 
interconnections, (3) the clearness and distinct- 
ness of the situations which correspond with their 
activity, (4) a general tendency of the activity 
of any system to inhibit the activity of any other 
system, and (5) their relative freedom from 
immediate sensory guidance. 

(c) Frontal. Motor and sensory areas occupy 
the smaller portion of the cerebrum. The larger 
frontal region is occupied by what are now fairly 
well established as association areas. 

The association areas may be regarded as the regions 
in which the different sense impressions are synthesised 
into complex perceptions or concepts. The foundations 
of all knowledge are to be found in the sensations 
aroused through the various sense organs ; through these 
avenues alone can our consciousness come into relation 
with the external or the internal (somatic) world, and the 
union of these sense impressions is the general function 
of the association areas. This function of the associa- 
tion areas is indicated by the anatomical fact that they 
are connected with the various sense centres by tracts of 
association fibres. . . . 

Here, as elsewhere in the nervous system, it may be 
supposed that the efficiency of the nervous machinery is 
conditioned partly by the completeness and character of 
training, but largely also by the inborn character of the 
machinery itself. The very marked differences among 
intelligent and cultivated persons — for instance, in the 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 111 

matter of musical memory and the power of appreciating 
and reproducing musical harmonies — cannot be attrib- 
uted to diiferences of training alone. The gifted per- 
son in this respect is one who is born with a certain 
portion of his brain more highly organised than that of 
his fellow-men. . . . With our ideas of the organisa- 
tion of the brain cortex, and our knowledge that differ- 
ent parts of this cortex give different; reactions in 
consciousness, it seems to follow that special talents are 
due to differences in organisation of special parts of the 
cortex.* 

§11. ILLUSTRATION 

1. Ideal, (a) Fusion, assimilation, compli- 
cation. 

( 1 ) Literary. 

Under the pentacle I held the little boy, my workman. 
Now the necromancer began to utter those awful invoca- 
tions, calling by name on multitudes of demons who are 
captains of their legions. . . . The boy, who was be- 
neath the pentacle, shrieked out in terror that a million 
of the fiercest men were swarming round and threatened 
us. He said, moreover, that four huge giants had ap- 
peared, and were striving to force their way inside the 
circle. — ^I said to him: "These creatures are all inferior 
to us, and what you see is only smoke and shadow; so 
then raise your eyes." — Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini, 
Book First, LXIV. 

• HoweU, W. H., Phys., 210-211. 



112 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Errata in Villa, G., Contemporary Psychology, xv. 

For Ralier read Rabier. 

For Garofolo read Garofalo. 

For Boratelli read Bonatelli. 

For La coscienza nell' uomo read La coscienza nel 
sonno. 

For Guiguo read Giugno. 

For particular choice read particular chain. 

For 1878 read 1898. 

Explain these errors by assimilation, etc. What was 
the sense core? What ideal elements were revived.'* What 
elements should have been revived? 
(2) Experimental. 

Find the concealed figures in the 'puzzle pictures.' 
How do they appear after they have once been found? 
Why do they appear so ?^'' 

Strike a chord on the piano. Strike one of the single 
tones. Strike the chord again and look for the single 
tone. What is the result? How does it sound relative to 
the others? 

Why does the following illustration represent a sol- 
dier entering an inn with his dog? What are the 
sensory elements? What are the ideal factors ?^^ 



L 



Fig. XII 
^"Titchener, E. B., Exp. Psych., l:Pt. I, 110. 
"DeGarmo, Charles, The Essentials of Method, 25. 



THE PSTCHOPHYSIC'AL ASPECT 113 
(j) Schematic. 




@ 

I 

R 

Fig. XIII. I, impression. R, 
revived disposition, 

(b) Free association. 
(1) Literary. 

Wee, modest, crimson-tipped flow'r, 
Thou's met me in an evil hour; 
For I maun crush amang the stoure 

Thy slender stem: 
To spare thee now is past my pow'r 

Thou bonnie gem. 

Cauld blew the bitter-biting north 
Upon thy early, humble birth ; 
Yet cheerfully thou glinted forth 

Amid the storm, 
Scarce rear'd above the parent-earth 

Thy tender form. 

Such fate to suffering Worth is giv'n, 

Who long with wants and woes has striv'n, 

By human pride or cunning driv'n 

To mis'ry's brink : 
Till, wrench'd of ev'ry stay but Heav'n, 
He, ruin'd, sink! 

To a Mountain Daisy, Bums. 
8 



114 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

(2) Experimental. 

Recall fully what you did with the book you read 
before this one. The centre of attention is 'book.' 

Give three images, or ideas, or series of images or 
ideas which the following words recall : light, money, hoy, 
'paper, country. 

Try to recall five ideas or images. 

Classify your results according to the logical scheme 
in the preceding section. Remember that the words 
recalled represent objects or situations and it is the situ- 
ations which are to be classified according to the scheme 
outlined. 

Of the following, give the name of (1) a part, (2) 
an attribute, (3) a use, (4) an object like it, and (5) 
an object sometimes seen next to or near it: hooh, knife, 
pen, dog, tree. 

How does this series of associations differ from the 
one above? What ideal reinforcement do these centres 
of attention receive? 

What would you do if you received $5,000 on condi- 
tion that you spend half of it in a reasonable manner 
within one day? The idea of the money is the centre of 
attention. What ideal elements keep it there? 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 115 
B 



(j) Schematic. 




Fig. XIV. I, impression. R, re- 
vived disposition, A, B, C, etc., 
.associations. 

(c) Deliberative. 
(1) Literary. 

He's here in double trust ; 
First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, 
Strong both against the deed ; then, as his host, 
Who should against his murderer shut the door. 
Not bear the knife myself. Besides, this Duncan 
Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been 
So clear in his great oflSce, that his virtues 
Will plead like angels trumpet-tongued against 
The deep damnation of his taking-off ; 
And pity, like a naked new-born babe. 
Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim horsed 
Upon the sightless couriers of the air. 
Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye, 
That tears shall drown the wind. 

Macbeth, l:vii. 



116 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

When he found I would leave him, he took care to 
prevent my getting employment in any other printing- 
house of the town, by going round and speaking to 
every master, who accordingly ref us'd to give me work. 
I then thought of going to New York, as the nearest 
place where there was a printer; and I was rather in- 
clin'd to leave Boston when I reflected that I had already 
made myself a little obnoxious to the governing party, 
and, from the arbitrary proceedings of the Assembly in 
my brother's case, it was likely I might, if I stay'd, soon 
to bring myself into scrapes ; and farther, that my indis- 
crete disputations about religion began to make me 
pointed at with horror by good people as an infidel or 
atheist. — ^Franklin, Autobiography. 

(2) Eocperimental. 

Which is better, to work hard during youth, so that 
enjoyment and ease may come in later life, or to have a 
modicum of enjoyment and ease during youth, with the 
possibility of the same during old age? 

If you come to any conclusion, give reasons for your 
conclusion. Upon what are they based ? Is your reason- 
ing more the result of personal attitude, or more the 
result of observation on the experience of others? Has 
your reading influenced your train of thought? 

Why are you studying or reading psychology, or 
Greek, or English? What was your aim at first? What 
means other than study did you have in mind for reach- 
ing your aim? When you attended to the means, i.e., 
when you were studying on a hot night or on a pleasant 
day, was the idea of the end always in view ? Were there 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 117 

any conflicting ends, or situations? When does the end 
rise to the focus of consciousness ? What effect has it on 
attention to the means? 

(j) Schematic. 




Fig. XV. I, impression. R, re- 
vived disposition. A, B, con- 
flicting associations. 



118 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

2. Cerebral. 




M M M M 



Fig. XVI. S, sense impression. M, motor response. 
A, B, C, higher levels. (After McDougall, W., Mind, 
N. S., 11:333.) 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 119 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

1. Ideal. The general order of development 
of the ideal dispositions which reinforce an im- 
pression or idea is from ( 1 ) impression to mem- 
ory, (2) memory to ideal construction, and (3) 
ideal construction to deliberation and choice. 
The special direction given to such development 
is due in part to experience and training, in part 
to natural capacity and talent. Environment 
and heredity are two factors which condition 
specialisation and efficiency. The general order 
of progression, however, is as indicated above. 

When an impression alone is able to control 
attention, we have primitive or instinctive atten- 
tion. When attention in part is sustained by a 
series of ideas or images we have assimilative or 
apperceptive attention. When conflict, delibera- 
tion and choice are factors which keep a situa- 
tion in the centre of attention, or when means are 
attended to because they are bound with an end, 
we have voluntary or selective attention. Other 
terms which are used are, passive and active, 
primary and secondary, involuntary and volun- 
tary, etc. These aspects, be it noted, constitute 
only a part of the attentive process. The other 
and equally important part is the motor control. 

(a) Primitive or instinctive. In its earliest 



120 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

stages, attention is instinctive. A sudden noise, 
a differing or changing impression, or one pleas- 
urable or painful, will stimulate reaction, will, 
in general, impel consciousness towards it. An 
infant, at times, seems to be controlled almost 
wholly by external impressions. Test any very 
young child, by moving the finger before it, or 
by tapping, or by holding a colored stick or ball 
within its grasp, and note the result. 

(b) Assimilative or apperceptive . Such im- 
pressions leave traces which on the psychophysi- 
cal side are called dispositions or memories. When 
some basis of experience has been constructed, 
impressions no longer pass through lower levels, 
but are guided and controlled in part by the 
activity of higher levels. Selection by means of 
ideal reinforcement is now possible. Of the mul- 
titude of impressions which flock in through the 
different sense organs, some persist in the centre 
of consciousness to the exclusion of other impres- 
sions. Some impressions have a meaning to the 
individual because of the experiences through 
which he has gone. Associations are excited, 
ideal dispositions are aroused, and these enable 
the impression, which is facilitated, to remain 
longer in the centre of greatest clearness and 
distinctness. A selection from an opera which 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 121 

has been sung at school, which has been heard 
from the street hand-organs, etc., stands out with 
special distinctness when heard at legitimate 
opera. From an individual point of view, con- 
scious selection is in part nothing more than 
specialised ideal reinforcement of impressions 
which has been made possible through previous 
experience. 

(c) Secondary or voluntary. In the course 
of experience, some situations yield pleasure, 
ease, satisfaction, quiescence, and a general atti- 
tude favorable towards their control. When 
such situations are not present, only traces re- 
main in the form of memories, ideas, plans, and 
the like. Attempts to bring back such or similar 
situations, or to make them more stable, or to 
reconstruct them, impel attention both to the 
situation in question, and to means by which it 
may be realised. The situation is not present, or, 
if present, is not fixed. Possibilities of its real- 
isation or fixation excite the idea of means which 
may bridge the gap between the future and the 
present. An attempt is made to direct present 
control and attention in such a way that thought 
and action will lead to what is desired. Delibera- 
tion and choice in such a case are due to the num- 
ber of means which may be possible. Attention 



122 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

to the situation persists in part because of desires 
and anticipations of pleasure, in part to the series 
of ideas which arise out of the end to be sought. 
Such ideas are evolved out of the end to be 
realised, and out of the situation under immedi- 
ate control. They serve to lead the individual 
from the present to that which is to be attained. 
A child, for example, who covets a toy, may plan 
to get it by saving his money, by coaxing his 
mother to get it, by making it himself, by ex- 
changing something else for it, by taking it out- 
right, and the like. In older persons, the means 
become more complicated. Sometimes years 
intervene between the beginning of attention to 
some means, and final realisation of the end. 

The means which lead to the end may be 
attractive or repelling. In either case they are 
secondary and of themselves might not persist 
in the centre of attention. Attention to them 
persists because of the connections which they 
have with the situation which is to be realised. It 
is this characteristic which leads one to give to 
attention the name of voluntary, secondary, or 
acquired. Much of the work of the world is 
done because of such secondary attention. In 
fact, most of the stability and persistence of 
work is due to voluntary attention. No doubt 



T^HE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 123 

much of the work may be able to hold attention 
for a time in itself, but irregularity and lapses 
are prevented because of the connection of such 
work with an end which is to be realised. An 
individual may, no doubt, like to sit behind his 
desk and do his work. But the flesh is weak, and 
at times, external stimulation, temptations, a 
pleasant day, alluring company, temporary indis- 
position, and the like would probably overcome 
the attractiveness of the work itself, were it not 
for the end to which the work leads, and which 
would fail of realisation if lapses crept in. 

Schematically the process in attention may be 
represented somewhat as follows: A may repre- 
sent an idea or image of the situation which is to 
be realised, as, a check, a pleasant time in the 
country, etc., and a^ b^ Cj dj e, etc., the means 
which lead to A^, as work, attention to a book, 
deprivation of temporary pleasures, and the like. 
If the desire for A is strong enough, attention 
to a, h, c, etc., will persist because of their asso- 
ciation with A. The means, a, h, c, etc., may or 
may not be pleasurable. They may hold atten- 
tion simply because they lead to a satisfying or 
pleasurable situation. Should they develop asso- 
ciations of their own they might then hold atten- 
tion in themselves. Such attention would then 



124 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

be assimilative or apperceptive as above de- 
scribed. One who reads history or psychology 
at first for the purpose of passing an examina- 
tion, may in time come to like it for its own sake. 

Deliberation is usually necessary when two 
conflicting ends strive to hold the focus of con- 
sciousness, or when the proper means are to be 
selected for the solution of a problem, or for 
effective guidance to the end in view. In such 
a process ideal series are referred back to the 
situation in question, tested, applied, connected 
with further associations, referred again to the 
situation in the focus of attention, etc., and then 
finally accepted or rejected. The individual who 
desires to go to the country may inquire, visit 
different places, seek means of travel, arrange 
money matters, check himself here or there to 
ensure effective control, and so on. The process 
is one with which most are familiar. 

On the ideal side the general order of devel- 
opment is somewhat as follows : 

( 1 ) Instinctive reaction to difference, change, 
or pleasure-pain. 

(2) Attention reinforced by some form of 
association. 

(3) Attention to agreeable means which lead 
to some situation not far distant. 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 125 

(4) Attention to agreeable means which lead 
to some situation far distant. 

(5) Attention to disagreeable means which 
lead to a situation soon to be realised. 

In the above discussion, only the ideal ele- 
ments have been presented. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that the entire process is a 
sensorimotor one, and that ideal reinforcement 
is only a part of the process. 

2. Cerebral. In cerebral development, the 
first centres to be developed are those of smell, 
sight, hearing, touch, and body sense (skin and 
muscles) . Soon after this, the motor fibres 
appear. These are called the primary zone areas 
and have projection fibres, both sensory and 
motor. Later still, the association areas acquire 
their myelinated or sheathed fibres. Upon ana- 
tomical grounds the order of development may 
be said to be from sensorimotor impression to 
association and differentiation.^^ 

(a) Reflex. The simplest act of attention 
from the cerebral side is an instinctive response 
to an external impression. A light, a sound, a 
sudden touch, etc., impel the sense organs to 
instinctive adjustment. Further response may 
also be excited. The nervous impulse passes 

" HoweU, W. H., Phys., Ch. X. 



126 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

by way of the spinal cord to some motor neuron. 
In addition, it passes up and leaves a trace in a 
sense tract of the cerebrum. The motor impulse, 
after effecting muscular response, produces a 
muscular sensation. This likewise is carried back 
to the brain and deposited in the corresponding 
sense tract. By these means experience leaves 
its mark on the individual, and builds up a sen- 
sorimotor basis for further use. 

(&) Cerebral. The various traces which are 
left in the cortex are connected in different de- 
grees of complexity. Visual combine with audi- 
tory and tactile impressions, and all lead in some 
way to the motor areas. Upon later excitation 
they serve to reinforce impulses which come from 
without. , According as experience has developed 
traces will some cerebral dispositions be roused 
and others not. In other words, some impres- 
sions are selected or discriminated by the indi- 
vidual, and others inhibited. A botanist will see 
a flower in a light different from that of a florist. 
A cook may see in it something different from 
that which attracts the attention of either. In 
cerebral terms, discrimination and selection mean 
simply nervous reinforcement of an impression 
by means of residual traces of former ex- 
periences. No doubt natural tendencies have 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 127 

something to do with the acquiring of such 
experiences. But any cerebral reinforcement is 
dependent upon traces left by former impressions 
and reactions. 

(c) Frontal. On the cerebral side further 
development consists in the connections which are 
made among the various traces left. Since many 
association fibres acquire their sheaths only late 
in life, and some not at all, it is evident that in- 
crease in the complexity of associations proceeds 
so long as the individual is active. Development 
in this connection is by no means restricted to the 
years of childhood. In voluntarj^ attention, con- 
siderable motor control is necessary. On the 
cerebral side, however, there is nothing to indi- 
cate that in such attention the cerebral process is 
anything more than association and predom- 
inance of some system of dispositions. 

In cases of voluntary reactions the impulses take a 
longer pathway and involve a larger series of central 
nerve-elements, since from the point at which they enter 
the system they must pass to the cephalic end and back 
again to the efferent elements. At the same time, in a 
voluntary action, a greater number of impulses combine 
to modify the discharge from the efferent cells.^^ 

Any feeling of strain which may be felt in 

"American Text-Book of Physiology, 2:226. 



128 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

voluntary attention is simply sensation of mus- 
cular effort, end-organ adjustments, etc., as 
pointed out in a preceding section. 

§ IV. EXPLANATION 

1. Ideajl. When an impression is lifted into 
the centre of attention, clothed with meaning, 
and reinforced by associations, one underlying 
law can be found to explain the process. The 
present moment on the ideal side consists of the 
impression, p, plus the revived elements which 
give to p its meaning and direction. The total 
state may be represented by pmn, in which m 
represents the meaning due to ideal revival, and 
n the tendency to pass onwards in the direction 
developed by previous experience. This whole 
moment then may excite a series of ideas or 
images which in themselves have meanings and 
tendencies. The process of revival may be 
represented by the series, 

pm^Uy a Ml Til b m2 712 emails ' ' ' ^ic- 
These moments represent the process on the 
ideal side. If we represent the objects which cor- 
respond or have at some time corresponded with 
the mental states we have, 
pmjiy amiTiy hm^Uz cm^n^ • • • etc. Mental 

11^1^ 22^2"" SS'S'^ AJpJi^ • ' ■ etc. Physical 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 129 

For example, suppose I attend to the book before 
me. This is a definite object, and corresponds 
to Ij, 1^, etc., according as I have seen it a number 
of times in various connections. If I continue to 
look at it I may recall the store in which I bought 
it, the persons whom I met at the time, the use 
to which I have put it, and so on. Such ideas are 
represented by am^n^, hm^n^, etc. But the 
actual situation, the store, for example, is repre- 
sented by 2, ^\ etc. If we consider the mental 
states we can formulate some one law which will 
explain the ideal succession. If we consider the 
objects, however, to which the mental states cor- 
respond, as book-store, etc., we have forms or 
relations of association which give us contiguity, 
similarity, purpose, or what not. These points 
of view, if confused, lead to a misconception of 
the law of psychophysical association.^^ 

The law which underlies the ideal revival of 
reinforcing dispositions may be stated as follows : 

Any element tends to reinstate the en- 
tire moment of which it constitutes a 
part, which moment tends (1) to dif- 
fuse itself along some one of the paths 

"See Arnold, F., 'The Unity of Mental Life,' Jour. Phil, 
Psych., and Sci. Meth., 3. 'Association and Atomism,' ibid. 'The 
Initial Tendency in Ideal Revival,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 18. 

9 



130 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

which have been formed, and (2) to leave 
a trace of itself as a whole for future revival 
and development. 

What we have is neither contiguity nor similar- 
ity, but rather continuity of ideal processes. 
Contiguity, similaritj'-, etc., refer to the objects 
correspondent with the ideas. 

The special direction which such diffusion will 
take depends upon various factors in previous 
experience. These give rise to what are called 
extrinsic secondary laws of association, namely, 
(1) repetition, (2) vividness, (3) recency, (4) 
primacy, and (5) emotional congruity. They 
may be stated briefly as follows : 

( 1 ) Situations which are frequently presented 
tend to develop dispositions which are readily 
revived. 

(2) Situations which are vivid tend to leave 
traces which are readily revived. 

(3) Situations which have been recently ex- 
perienced tend to leave traces which are readily 
revived. 

(4) First impressions tend to leave traces 
which are readily revived. 

(5) Situations which excite an emotion leave 
traces which are readily revived when the emo- 
tional attitude is again taken even if for differ- 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 131 

ent reasons. Revivability may be caused by 
reappearance of the situation itself, or, according 
to the law of association just given, by any other 
situation which has common elements, or which 
is objectively or formally connected with it as 
suggested in the forms or relations of association 
outlined in a section above. Thus, similar mem- 
ories may be roused by the sight of a friend, of 
his photograph, of his name, of a present from 
him, etc. The stimulus serves to rouse the whole 
disposition, which then diffuses in different 
directions. 

The secondary laws are probably variations of 
the one law of repetition. Thus, a vivid situation 
will leave a trace which is readily revived upon 
another occasion. This gives repetition of the re- 
vival with further associations. Such associations 
may stimulate other revivals, with increased repe- 
tition. So the process continues. First impres- 
sions operate in a similar manner. Thus, early 
impressions in childhood are constantly resur- 
rected by our home surroundings, friends, house- 
hold gods, and the like. So, by repetition, they 
become imbedded more deeply in the memory. 
The same holds true to a certain extent for emo- 
tional congruity, and for recency. At bottom, 
repetition of impressions and revivals is the most 



132 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

important means by which direction, order, and 
organization of associations become fixed. 

On the subjective side we have as intrinsic 
secondary laws of association, (1) organisation, 
(2) comprehensiveness, (3) cooperation and 
strength of cohesiveness between parts, (4) the 
nature of the predominating sensory elements, 
and (5) general conditions of freshness and 
vitality of the individual.^ ^ Such organisation 
and systemisation wiU depend in part upon 
natural tendencies, and in part upon en- 
vironment and education. Briefly stated these 
intrinsic secondary laws are: 

(1) The direction and the duration of ideal 
diffusion and association are dependent upon the 
organisation of the mental dispositions aroused. 

(2) The number of associations which can be 
revived depends upon the comprehensiveness of 
the ideal systems excited. 

(3) The persistence of any ideal system de- 
pends upon the strength and number of its 
various parts. 

(4) The quality or the ideas or images 
revived depends upon the predominating sensory 
elements. 

(5) Organisation, comprehensiveness, etc., are 

"Stout, G. F., Analytic Psychology, 2:Ch. VII, §6-8. 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 133 

more or less effective in facilitating the ease 
and duration of revival according as the indi- 
vidual is rested or fatigued. 

The function of the ideas, images, and dispo- 
sitions which are revived are (l) to reinforce 
incoming impressions and to inhibit others, i.e., 
to discriminate and select, and (2) to give guid- 
ance to motor attitudes and control. The former 
has already been described. A word or two is 
necessary to emphasise the latter. Ideas and 
images in themselves are bleak and barren. Only 
as they are accompanied by attitudes or more 
open motor response do they have life and real- 
ity. Even the most abstruse and speculative 
inquiries give forth tendencies and lead to atti- 
tudes which are satisfying, pleasurable, or the 
reverse. Such attitudes stand for, and in a way, 
represent the fuller motor explication which 
would follow in complete realisation of the ideas. 
This motor attitude will be considered fully in 
the next chapter. 

2. Cerebral. A sensory stimulus leads to a 
motor discharge because the nervous paths are 
organised that way. All nervous impulses pass 
in a forward direction from sense organ to sen- 
sory cells, and then to motor cells and to the 
muscles. In reflex and instinctive responses the 



134 ^ ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

sensory stimulation alone is sufficient to open 
the nerve paths and start the complete sensori- 
motor process. 

In acquired responses, paths between the corti- 
cal cells are probably broken through by the 
localised emphasis of the tonic activity of the 
nervous system. The more or less uniform ner- 
vous pressure which is present during the waking 
state is raised in intensity by sensory stimulation. 
A heightened activity is thus produced in some of 
the cortical cells. Such activity flows forward 
towards motor cells. It also drains cells con- 
nected with those excited by sensory stimulation. 
When several sensory cells are excited, the 
heightened diffusion of nervous energy in re- 
stricted portions of the cortex probably opens 
up connecting paths between them, some by 
pressure, some by drainage.^ ^ Later excitations 
will then flow in such paths as have been opened, 
i.e., will pass along the line of least resistance. 
Individual capacity and organisation of cerebral 
cells and fibres may likewise condition the kinds 
of connections v/hich can be made. 

The nervous processes which go on in acts of 
attention may be briefly explained. When a 
sensory impression is reinforced by an ideal dis- 

" James, W., Princ. of Psych., 2:580-592. 



THE PSYCHOPHYSICAL ASPECT 135 

position or a series of dispositions, the corres- 
pondent cerebral process is somewhat as follows : 
The nervous impulse passes along lines of least 
resistance to the cortex and diffuses into chan- 
nels which have been formed by previous exper- 
ience. Tonic activity of the cerebrum becomes 
heightened and focalised within narrow sensori- 
motor limits. Motor responses may result in 
further discrimination and selection of aspects 
of the situation and so give rise to more impres- 
sions, and stimulate greater sensorimotor activity. 
In abstract thought motor attitudes may serve 
the same purpose. The question of motor re- 
sponse is, in fact, one of the most important in 
the attentive process.^ ^ 

" Baldwin, J. Mark, Mental Development in the Child and the 
Race, Ch. XIV. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF 
ATTENTION 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

1. Organic. Attention to a situation is 
marked by a number of organic changes, some of 
which are more or less constant. The general 
organic changes involve (1) respiration, (2) 
vasomotor constriction of peripheral arteries, and 
(3) circulation.^ 

* Among others see Angell, James Rowland, and Thompson, 
Helen Bradford, 'A Study of the Relations between Certain Or- 
ganic Processes and Consciousness,' Psych. Rev., 6:32-69. 
MacDougall, Robert, 'The Physical Characteristics of Attention,' 
Ibid., 3:158-180. McGamble, Eleanor A., 'Attention and Thoracic 
Breathing,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 16:261-292. Mentz, Paul, 'Die 
Wirkung akustischer Sinnesreize auf Puis und Athmung,' Phil. 
Stud., 11:61-124, 371-393, 563-602. ZoneflF, P., und Meumann, E., 
'Ueber Begleiterscheinungen psychischer Vorgange in Athem und 
Puis,' Phil. Stud., 18:1-113. Stevens, H. C, 'A Plethysmograph 
Study of Attention,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 16:409-483. J. J. van 
Biervliet, 'Ueber den Einfluss der Geschwindigkeit des Pulses auf 
die Zeitdauer der Reactionszeit by Schalleindriicken,' Phil. Stud., 
10:160-167, and 'Ueber den Einfluss der Geschwindigkeit des 
Pulses auf die Zeitdauer der Reactionszeit bei Licht- und Tastein- 
drucken,' Ibid., 11:125-134. Delabarre, Edmond B., 'L'Influence 
de L'Attention sur les Mouvements Respiratoires,' Rei\ Phil., 
33:639-649. Bonser, F. G., 'A Study of the Relations between 
Mental Activity and the Circulation of the Blood,' Psych. Rev., 
10:120-138. Binet, A. and Vaschide, N., 'The Influence of In- 
tellectual Work on the Blood-Pressure in Man,' Ibid., 4:54-66. 

136 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 137 

(a) Respiration. Concentrated attention usu- 
ally gives rise to rapid, shallow breathing. The 
inspiration becomes shorter, the expiration 
shorter, and the rate more rapid. The respira- 
tion may be slightly inhibited. Variations are 
possible, both in the rate and depth of the 
respirations. 

(b) Vasoconstriction. When the volume of 
the hand or finger is measured during attention, 
it usually shows a decrease due to a sympathetic 
constriction of the peripheral arteries. Such 
constriction may be slowly succeeded by a grad- 
ual dilation of the arteries to the normal. It may 
be accompanied by dilation of the cerebral ar- 
teries and increase in the supply of blood to the 
brain. 

(c) Circulation. During attention the pulse 
becomes more rapid. There is always some vari- 
ation in the pulse during concentrated atten- 
tion of any kind. There is also found a change 
in blood pressure due in part to change in heart 
beat and in part to vasoconstriction of the ar- 
teries. Blood pressure tends to increase during 
periods of attentive activity. There seems like- 
wise to be a redistribution of the supply which 
favors those areas which have been called into 
service. In moments of concentrated mental ap- 



138 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

plication it seems that the brain receives a greater 
supply of blood. It also shows a rise in 
temperature. 

2. Sensory. On the side of sensory accom- 
modation and fixation attention consists of (1) 
changes within the organ itself which facilitate 
adjustment, and (2) motor adaptations for the 
purpose of fixation. 

(a) Accommodation. In vision, the follow- 
ing changes take place during visual attention: 

(1) There is adaptation of the pupil which 
controls the admission of light and so conditions 
visual distinctness and clearness. 

( 2 ) The surface of the lens changes, becoming 
more convex in the middle and flatter towards 
the periphery.^ 

When external conditions are artificially va- 
ried the following changes may be noted: 

( 1 ) When the eyes fixate a spot directly ahead 
and at the same time attend to an object out of 
line with direct vision, the pupil shows an increase 
in size. 

(2) When the light is decreased in intensity 
the pupil increases in size. 

(3) In mental processes which require no Im- 

'^ Tscherning, M., Physiological Optics, Eng. tr. by C. Weiland, 
Ch. XII. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 139 

mediate use of vision the pupil expands the most. 
At the same time the lens becomes correspond- 
ingly flatter.^ 

Changes in the other sense organs are not so 
evident. In audition it is highly probable that 
the two intrinsic muscles of the ear, the tensor 
tympani and the stapedius, function as a means 
of accommodation for the tympanic membrane 
and for the membrane attached to the base of the 
stapedius. In tasting, the increased flow of sa- 
liva, and in smelling, the increased dilation of 
the nostrils and the stronger inhalations likewise 
function to bring about distinctness and clear- 
ness in the field of attention. 

(b) Fixation. Control of a sensory situation 
involves fixation of the end organs. If the 
situation is a visual one, the eyes turn towards 
it and focus it. If auditory, the head turns in 
the direction of the sound. If tactile, the fingers 
feel and touch it. If gustatory, the tongue rolls 
it about and takes different shapes and posi- 
tions. The whole mechanism seeks to produce 
clearness and distinctness. Accurate observa- 
tions have been made in visual fixation. The 
movements of the eye have been photographed 

*Heinrich, W., 'Die Aufmerksamkeit und die Funktion der 
Sinnesorgane,' Zeit. f. Psych, u. Phys. d. Sinnesorg., 9:342-388 



140 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

both in general fixation and in reading. It is 
shown by such photographs that the eye, in fix- 
ating a point, does not remain rigid, but fixates 
around the point, covering a small area. More- 
over, the two eyes are not exactly, but only ap- 
proximately coordinate in fixating a point or in 
passing over a line from one end to the other.^ 
In reading, the eyes cover the printed page by a 
series of rapid movements from left to right. 
These movements vary in number between 2 and 
7 for a single line and usually number from 4 to 
6. A slight pause occurs between each movement 
and the one which follows it. The area which can 
be seen at any single moment is represented ap- 



FlG. XVII. Visual field in read- 
ing (After Huey, E. B., Psych, 
and Fed. of Read., 52). 

proximately by the following diagram. By fix- 
ating the central dot one can see the letters 

* Yale Psychological Studies, Psych. Rev., Man. Sup., 7, 'Intro- 
duction to a Series of Studies of Eye Movements by Means of 
Kinetoscopic Photographs,' C. H. Judd, C. N. McAllister, and 
W. M. Steele, ' The Fixation of Points in the Visual Field, ' C. N. 
McAllister. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 141 

written within the given area. It seems that 
'more is read to the right of the fixation point 
than to the left.'^ 

(3) Motor. An important factor in the at- 
tention process is the motor aspect. Even when 
actual motor control is not in operation, 
motor attitudes and innervations serve instead 
to give meaning to a situation and to effect sat- 
isfaction, ease, quiescence, or pleasure. The 
motor aspect of attention usually assumes three 
forms, (1) motor diffusions, (2) motor inner- 
vations or attitudes, and (3) complete motor 
control. 

(a) Motor diffusion. That ideas and images 
tend to realise themselves in action may be seen 
in moments of intellectual application. Hand, 
head and body movements indicate that nervous 
impulses are passing through motor channels. 
The head, face, fingers, and feet seem to be 
affected the most. A careful study of such auto- 
matic movements has been made by Lindley and 
the results of his findings are given below.^ The 

*Huey, Edmund Burke, The Psychology and Pedagogy of 
Beading, Ch. III. See also Dearborn, W. F., "The Psychology of 
Reading,' Arch, of Phil, Psych., and Sci. Meth., 4. 

'Lindley, Ernest H., 'A Preliminary Study of Some of the 
Motor Phenomena of Mental Effort,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 
8:491-517. 



142 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

general grouping of such movements is seen in 
the following: 

Head: Held on side, move sideways, move up and 
down, move with pen, jerky movements, move. 

-Face: Grin, grimace. 

Eyes: Fixed, wink, close, twitch, roll, squint, bulge. 

Ears: Move. 

Forehead: Wrinkle, frown. 

Mouth: Twitch, drop corners, chew, move. 

Jaw: Bite, chew, put objects in, clench, move sideways. 

Lips: Draw in and out, pucker, move, work, bite, press, 
twist, suck, chew. 

Tongue: Protrude, move sideways, move in and out, 
move with pen, bite, chew, roll in one cheek, suck. 

Hands: Play, clasp, clench, rub or scratch, put in 
pocket, wriggle, pull hairs, etc., twist hair, smooth, put 
objects in, move. 

Fingers: Play, drum, mark on paper, move up and 
down, point, move, snap, pull. 

Arms: Fold and unfold, jerky movements. 

Legs: Cross, move, move knees, twist, raise heel, twist 
heel. 

Feet: Sides of feet, stand on one foot, right on left, 
left on right, rise on toes, rock, lift one foot, move, 
stamp, wriggle, cross, tap, shake.^ 

In addition, the following tables give the auto- 
matisms most frequent with children and adoles- 

Ubid., 493. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 143 

cents, and also the movements characteristic of 
various activities: 





I 
Ch. 


II 

Ad. 


III 
Ch. 1.81 


IV 

A 


Feeq.Ch. 


Freq.Ad. 


A' 


Fingers 


81 


143 


146 


102 


Fingers 


Fingers 


Head+ 


Feet 


72 


57 


130.3 


228 


Feet 


Feet 


Mouth+ 


Lips 


71 


53 


128 


241 


Lips 


Eyes 


Legs+ 


Tongue 


57 


26 


103 


396 


Tongue 


Lips 


Tongue+ 


Head 


48 


8 


86.8 


1085 


Head 


Hands 


Face+ 


Body 


42 


33 


76 


230 


Body 


Jaw 


Lips+ 


Hands 


32 


49 


57.9 


118 


Hands 


Forehead 


Body+ 


Mouth 


20 


6 


36.2 


603 


Mouth 


Body 


Feet+ 


Eyes 


15 


56 


27 


48 


Eyes 


Tongue 


Hands + 


Jaw 


13 


49 


23.5 


47 


Jaw 


Head 


Fingers+ 


Legs 


6 


2 


10.8 


540 


Legs 


Mouth 


Arms- 


Forehead 


5 


34 


9.05 


26 


Forehead 


Legs 


Eyes— 


Face 


3 


2 


5.43 


271 


Face 


Face 


Jaw- 


Arms 


1 


2 


1.81 


90 


Arms 


Arms 


Forehead— 


Ears 




2 






Ears 


Ears 


Ears— 



I Ch.:=children. 
II Ad,=adolescents. 

III Ch.=::no. ch. X 1.81, there being 1.81 more adolescents than 
children reported. 

IV A=:percentages of children's automatisms as compared 
with adolescents. 

A'^percentages arranged in order, -j- meaning more and 
— less for children. 

Table XXXVII 



The following is a classification according to 
activity: 



144 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 





C» rt ^ 


^ 


o 


•- JS o !>> S -S S o 
J ffl [i, H H, El4 fr< H 


S 


CO rt -H 


02 


o 

50 


^3 
S fl aire's "S S34:> > ©■§ if 

>>iS-- o ® S-S S 1 ^ o 3 


iz; 

1 


t-OOifflGOt^-^'-TCOO'yiCDXQD 


o 


1—1 


•"^ce-'^'=^<i'OOo®c6*'-ice 


E-t ^ 

< 




-* 


CO 


fe El^ ffl iJ H fe ►^ J W ffi H 


< 

m 

« 12; 
H o 

!z; ^ 

O 

o 


^ r-* 1— 1 I— ( 


GO 


o 

o 


09 c3 


o 


MooeotocDODX 


-* 
-* 


o 


2 


C5 

iz; 


COOtOOOt~COGO«5'-0«5 
Q» ^ -H rt rt 


05 

o 


o 


^3 
OQ C3 


S 


OOOOO«2tOG0a0 

-rj'ao-^-^i-iiOCOT-ii-i 

G* .-H I-H -1 ^ 


OD 


o 

X 


m a W fe fa J H <^ •-» 




0» (5» -H ^ 


to 

C5 


G» 




03 

o 

d 








THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 145 

The direction of the motor diffusions may 
be determined by the following test: A plate 
glass, made opaque, rests on three ball bearings. 
Attached to the frame around the glass is a rod. 
At the end of the rod is a cork. Through the 
cork is a pencil. Under the pencil is a smoked 
paper. When the hand is placed on the plate 
glass and attention is concentrated on something 
else, the direction of the movements as recorded 
on the smoked paper will indicate roughly the 
direction of the attention. Jastrow found that 
the hand moves in the direction of colors when 
they are recognised and named in horizontal 
rows, and from left to right or the reverse when 
they are named from left to right or from right 
to left. So, too, the hand movement tends to 
accompany the rhythm in counting the beats 
of a metronome, or, if not, to move towards the 
sound. In thinking of some hidden objects, the 
marks on the paper indicate roughly the direction 
in which the objects lie.^ 

(b) Motor innervation. The tests just men- 
tioned may be considered in part as evidence of 
motor innervation. Definite tests by Miinster- 
berg and Campbell point to the same thing. If 

'Jastrow, Joseph, *A Study of Involuntary Movements,' Am. 
Jour, of Psych., 4:398-407. 
10 



146 



ATTENTION AND INTEREST 



an observer gazes at an object, closes his eyes, 
and then turns his head sideways, the eyes lag 
somewhat behind the head rotation, and in fact 
may not turn at all. This is shown by measuring 
the head rotation in degrees and the correspon- 
dent eye rotation, also in degrees. The subject 
opens his eyes as soon as he has finished turning 
his head, and the rotation of the eyes is immedi- 
ately measured. The following diagram shows 
a phase of the relative positions of head and eyes : 




Fig. XVIII. O, object. E, eyes. H, head 

Even though the head has turned from O to H, 
the eyes still tend to fixate O which was looked at 
before the turning of the head began. The fol- 
lowing tables show the difference between the 
head and the eye rotations, such differences being 
conditioned by the nature of the stimulating 
object:^ 

* Munsterberg, H., and Campbell, W. C, 'The Motor Power of 
Ideas,' Psych. Rev., 1:441-453. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 147 

Observer M 





1 second 


2 second 


3 second 


4 second 


Average 




E 


H 


E 


I-I 


E 


H 


E 


H 


E 


H 


Letters 


12 


50 


25 


48 


48 


52 


48 


50 


33 


50 


One word 


13 


46 


25 


46 


47 


47 


47 


52 


33 


48 


Nine words 





48 


8 


49 


17 


48 


28 


50 


13 


49 


Picture 


14 


46 


32 


50 


45 


52 


47 


47 


35 


49 


Nine 






















pictiires 





45 





47 


2 


50 


16 


49 


5 


48 


One color 


4 


48 


28 


47 


31 


50 


47 


52 


28 


49 


Two colors 


4 


47 


22 


47 


23 


46 


46 


48 


24 


47 


Irregular 






















colors 





46 


16 


48 


25 


50 


39 


51 


20 


49 


Photo- 






















graph 


5 


52 


15 


51 


22 


52 


28 


50 


18 


51 


Num. for 






















addition 


42 


52 


47 


47 


42 


52 


44 


49 


44 


50 


Average 


9.4 


48.0 


21.8 


48.0 


30.2 


49.9 


39.0 


49.8 


25.1 


48.9 



Observer S 



Average 



17.4 



36.0 



14.8 



36.6 



17.9 



36.0 



17.9 



35.7 



17.0 



36.1 



Observer C 



26.7 


41.6 


21.6 


43.0 


20.4 


42.4 


19.3 


42.8 


22.25 



54.25 



Table XXXIX 

All three subjects agree that a simple letter, word, 
color, or picture has the weakest motor influence ; all 
agree that two colors have more power than one, and 
the irregular colors still more • . . ; that nine pictures 
have by far stronger motor energy than one . . . . ; nine 



148 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

words stronger than one . . . ; that the photograph of 
a person has far stronger motor function than the simply 
sketched picture of an object of daily life/" 

Images and ideas are strongly reinforced by 
motor innervations, especially when conflict arises 
or when greater distinctness is desired. In tests 
on the fluctuation of visual fields or changing 
perspectives, eye movements will reinforce one 
aspect at the expense of the other. Thus, if one 
fixates the staircase figure or the cube figure, 
motor innervations will determine in part whether 
the figure is to jut forward or retreat backward. 
In fixating a field of white dots on a black back- 
ground, the form, as, square, circle, triangle, etc., 
into which the spots fall, may be determined in 
part by innervations of the eye muscles and the 
head. 

Memory images of objects and places are 
made more definite by such innervations and 
movements. Distinctness and clearness are fa- 
cilitated by these motor aids, especially when 
shape, or size, or position, are in doubt. Situa- 
tions of greater complexity, as those which in- 
volve mechanical arrangements, movements of 
parts, machinery, and the like, can often be 
attended to only by the aid of motor tendencies 

"J6tU, 451-452. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 149 

felt in the fingers, hands, body, and head. At 
times, such tendencies become reahsed in actual 
movements, or in the definite construction of 
schematic diagrams. Only by such aids can the 
ideal situation persist in the centre of attention.^^ 
In more abstract application, the motor atti- 
tudes are usually overlooked. There will be 
found, however, pauses and intermissions in 
which the series of ideas or images is followed 
by a more or less definite motor attitude, or even 
by motor reactions. There may be a shake of the 
head, a body tendency towards or from some 
ideal situation, hand and finger movements to 
emphasise afiirmation and negation, in short, a 
general attitude which determines in what direc- 
tion further thought should go. In addition to 
such definite pauses, there is a constant interplay 
between ideas and innervations, in which the 
former are tested, as it were, in a tentative man- 
ner. These motor innervations give rise to a 
feeling tone and reinforce one or the other series 
of ideas. In such cases the motor innervations 
and attitudes stand for actual manipulation and 
control. They give approximately similar feel- 

" See Lange, N., 'Beitrage zur Theorie der sinnlichen Auf- 
merksamkeit und der activen Apperception,' Phil. Stud., 4:413-422. 
Strieker, S., Studien iiber die Sprachvorstellungen. Miinsterberg, 
H., Beitrage zur Experimentellen Psychologie, Heft 2. 



150 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

ings of satisfaction, pleasure, and the like. If 
the attitude is not sufficient to determine the 
validity of some train of thought, then actual 
motor control often follows. This process will 
be found even in the most abstruse and specula- 
tive inquiries.^ ^ 

(c) Motor control. Actual manipulation is 
most in evidence ( 1 ) when the child is first learn- 
ing objective values, (2) when attention involves 
full control, and (3) when the meaning of an 
image or idea can not be determined or directed 
by motor innervations and attitudes, i.e., when 
there is conflict of meaning or doubt. When a 
new situation is presented to an individual or 
when he is suddenly confronted with it, attention, 
on the motor side, is characterised by an excess 
of movements. If satisfactory control is not 
immediately realised, a number of manipulations, 
some effective, some ineffective, are attempted. 
Out of a large number of movements, some are 
capped with pleasure, satisfaction, etc., and tend 
to persist. So long as control yields pleasure or 
satisfaction, the situation will tend to persist in. 
consciousness. 

*^S'ee Messer, August, 'Experimentell-psychologische Unter- 
suohungen iiber das Denken,' Arch. f. d. ges. Psych., 8:1-224, §8 

^ Baldwin, J. M., Ment. Dev., Ch. VII. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 151 

Attention to objective situations consists 
largely of manual and similar adjustments. The 
object may be felt in a passive way, all parts of 
the hand coming into contact with it at once 
(synthetic touch), or the hand may explore the 
objective actively point by point (analytic 
touch)/* Dissection, application, and recon- 
struction may change the situation entirely, 
affording new bases for sensory stimulation and 
yielding a richer meaning to the individual. The 
persistence of the attention will depend largely 
upon the points of contact which are possible by 
such motor control and upon the stimulations 
which can be produced by manual manipulation 
and reconstruction. A child, for example, who 
has a few blocks, will obtain a certain amount of 
visual stimulation from them. If he builds with 
them and rearranges them, he will give rise to a 
new source of stimulation. As he continues to 
play with them his different reconstructions 
enable his attention to persist because of the vary- 
ing situations which are aff orded.^^ 

In the last analysis, validity of judgment can 
be established only by application through motor 

"Stout, G. F., A Manual of Psychology, Ch. IV. 
^'See MacDougall, Robert, 'The Significance of the Human 
Hand in the Evolution of Mind,' Am. Jour, of Psych., 16:232-242. 



152 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

means. An idea is tested by being applied to 
concrete situations. Where a motor basis has 
been established by experience, an attitude may 
take the place of more explicit realisation. In all 
such cases attention consists in the alternating 
process of ideal reinforcements and motor inner- 
vations. In both motor and ideal control, empha- 
sis upon any aspect of a situation necessarily 
excludes other aspects. There is no special and 
separate activity of inhibition in such a case. 
Inhibition is simply a name for the negative 
aspect of reinforcement. Aspects of a situation 
which are not effective in exciting ideal dispo- 
sitions or which are foreign to motor control will 
be unable to persist in the focus of attention, 
other things remaining the same. Such lack of 
persistence is called inhibition. Inhibition usu- 
ally implies predominance of some other aspect 
of a situation.^^ Such inhibition becomes more 
and more prominent as the grooves of habit and 
thought become deeper. It corresponds with 
that which from the social point of view is called 
conservatism. As individuals grow older, new 
situations have less and less chance to excite 
attention or to persist in the focus of control. 

"See the excellent discussion in Mill, James, Analysis of the 
Phenomena of the Human Mind, Ch. XXIV. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 153 

The periods when impressions are able by virtue 
of their own inherent impelling power to excite 
attention are the plastic ages of childhood and 
youth. 

4. Fatigue. Concentrated activity, especially 
when it involves motor control, usually results in 
fatigue. There arises decreased irritability and 
increased slowness of response. Efficiency of 
attention begins to decline. In attention to mini- 
mal stimuli, the fluctuation periods become 
shorter. In simple reactions, the reaction time 
becomes longer. Objects in the field of atten- 
tion persist for a less time in the centre of con- 
trol. On the subjective side, fatigue is felt as 
weariness, disinclination to persistent effort, 
sensation of strain in the muscles, lack of interest 
in situations which normally are of an impelling 
nature, and sometimes as pain in the parts of the 
body affected. On the objective side, fatigue is 
manifested by a general slackness and listless- 
ness of the body posture, by relaxed fingers, and 
by asymetrical and fidgety movements. Coordi- 
nations become more bungling, incorrect, and 
for finer control, often impossible. The eyes 
wander, lose the power of persistent fixation, 
and assume a general vacant expression. Re- 
sponse to stimulation becomes less exact and 



154 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

requires more time than usual. In more ad- 
vanced stages of fatigue, there is a loss of con- 
trol, a great irritability, and an explosiveness 
which may be set off by trifling stimulation.^'' 
General bodily fatigue results in a general deple- 
tion of nervous energy and by diffusion affects 
all portions of the organism. Fatigue, however, 
may be localised in one or other sphere of activ- 
ity. In such a case continued activity within the 
sphere will give rise to manifestations of fatigue 
much like those of general fatigue. 

§ ii. illustration 

1. Organic. 

(a) Literary. 

Naturally enough the idea occurred to me: if the 
indentations on paper could be made to give forth again 
the click of the instrument, why could not the vibrations 
of a diaphram be recorded and similarly reproduced? I 
rigged up an instrument hastily and pulled a strip of 
paper through it, at the same time shouting 'Hallo!' 
Then the paper was pulled through again, my friend 
Batchelor and I listening breathlessly. We heard a 
distinct sound, which a strong imagination might have 

" Meumann, Ernst, Vorlesungen ziir Einfiihritng in die Ex- 
perimentelle Pddagogik, Ch. XII. Burgerstein, Leo, und Neto- 
litzky, August, Handbuch der Schulhygiene, 454-492. O'Shea, 
M. v., Dynamic Factors in Education, Ch. XIII. Warner, Fran- 
cis, The Study of Children, Ch. VII. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 155 

translated into the original 'Hallo.' That was enough 
to lead me to further experiment. — Edison and the 
phonograph in P. G. Hubert, Inventors, 237. 

In the amphitheatre were men who had raised their 
arms and remained in that posture. Sweat covered the 
faces of others, as if they themselves were struggling 
with the beast. In the Circus nothing was heard save 
the sound of flame in the lamps, and the crackle of bits 
of coal as they dropped from the torches. Their voices 
died on the lips of the spectators, but their hearts were 
beating in their breasts as if to split them. It seemed to 
all that the struggle was lasting for ages. But the man 
and the beast continued on in their monstrous exertion; 
one might have said that they were planted in the earth. 
— Quo Vadis, Henry Sienkiewicz, Eng. tr. by J Curtin, 
499. 

(b) Experimental. 

Catch yourself during a moment of intense study. 
Note difference from normal breathing. Note the res- 
piration of others during profound attention. Count 
the inspirations and expirations for a set time and com- 
pare with the normal. 

Place the finger on the wrist of a subject and feel the 
pulse. Tell him to think of one of five objects before 
him. Name each one, one at a time. Feel the difference 
in the pulse when the right one is named. Tell the sub- 
ject to think of some exciting incident in his life, or refer 
him to one. Note the difference in the pulse. 



156 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

If laboratory apparatus is accessible, repeat the tests 
of MacDougall, McGamble, Mentz, ZonefF and Meu- 
mann, or others. 

2. Sensory. 

(a) Literary. 

Cyrus opened a door and entered as it were an enor- 
mous chamber, but low and dark, for the light came in 
only through grated openings which separated it from 
the arena. At first Vinicius could see nothing ; he heard 
only the murmur of voices in the room, and the shouts of 
people in the amphitheatre. But after a time, when his 
eyes had grown used to the gloom, he saw crowds of 
strange beings, resembling wolves and bears. Those 
were Christians sewed up in skins of beasts. — Quo Vadis, 
H. Sienkiewicz, 421. 

Prithee, see there ! behold ! look ! lo ! how say you ? 
Why, what care I ? If thou canst nod, speak too. 
If charnel-houses and our graves must send 
Those that we bury back, our monuments 
Shall be the maws of kites. {Ghost vanishes) 

Macbeth, III:iv. 

(b) Experimental. 

Observe the size of the pupil of the eye by means of 
a mirror. Move slowly towards a light and observe 
changes in size. Move slowly away from the light 
towards a darker place, and note changes in size. 

Hold some object, as a pencil, at arm's length and fix- 
ate some point on it. Move it slowly in the direction of 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 157 

the face till it touches the nose. Note the strain of 
fixation. 

Observe the expression of a nearsighted pupil who is 
seated too far from the blackboard. Note the peculiar 
expression of the eyes. Compare the strained look with 
that of a normal child. 

Note the movements of the head when one is listening 
intently to a sound. Observe the positions of individuals 
in an audience who are attending to a preacher, a 
speaker, an actor, etc. Note the lapses when the atten- 
tion is not held. Note the changes in position when 
some more stimulating appeal seems to be made. 

Take any text and mark letters with crosses, circles, 
etc., about one inch apart. Vary the spaces making 
them three quarters of an inch, an inch and a half, etc. 
See whether or not the eye movements are aided. Note 
the effect of meaning on the eye pause. Use red ink 
and compare its efficacy with black ink.^* 

3. Motor. 

(a) Literary. 

'France and Liege, and long live the gallant archer! 
We will live and die with him !' 

William de la Marck's eyes sparkled, and he grasped 
his dagger as if about to launch it at the heart of the 
audacious speaker; but glancing his eye around, he read 
something in the looks of his soldiers, which even he was 
obliged to respect. — Quentin Durward, Ch. XXII. 

" Huey, E. B., Psych, and Ped. of Bead., 176. 



158 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

The fruit was standing in the pantry, which by a 
lattice at a considerable height received light from the 
kitchen. One day, being alone in the house, I climbed 
up to see these precious apples. I fetched the spit — 
tried if it would reach them — it was too short — I length- 
ened it with a small one which was used for game — my 
master being very fond of hunting, darted at them sev- 
eral times without success ; at length was more fortunate ; 
being transported to find I was bringing up an apple, 
I drew it gently to the lattice — was going to seize it 
when (who can express my grief and astonishment!) I 
found it would not pass through — it was too large. 
I tried every expedient to accomplish my design, sought 
supporters to keep the spits in the same position, a 
knife to divide the apple, and a lath to hold it with; 
at length, I so far succeeded as to effect the division, 
and made no doubt of drawing the pieces through; 
but it was scarcely separated, (compassionate reader, 
sympathise with my affliction) when both pieces fell 
into the pantry. The next day (a fine opportunity 
offering) I renew the trial. I fasten the spits together; 
get on the stool; take aim; am just going to dart at 
my prey — unfortunately the dragon did not sleep ; the 
pantry door opens, my master makes his appearance, 
and, looking up, exclaims, "Bravo!" — Confessions of 
Rousseau, Eng. tr., p. 29. 

(b) Experimental. 

Keep a record of motor diffusions and automatisms 
made by others. Record your own automatism. Tell 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 



159 



what activities they accompany. Are any automatisms 
characteristic ? 

Repeat Jastrow's experiment. 

Repeat Campbell and Miinsterberg's experiment. 

In the following figure, move the eye from a to h. 
How does the figure appear? Move the eye from c to d. 
Is there any difference in the appearance of the figure.'* 



y y 










-(y 


y 








/ 


y y 


h 


ria. 


XIX 


a, 



Close your eyes. Try to picture a chariot race, 
with one in the lead, and one close behind. Note the 
movements of the horses, the driver, and the wheels of the 
chariot. Are there any eye movements or innervations.? 
Is there any tendency to move the eye from one side to 
the other in picturing the chariot in the rear.'' Are 
there any other innervations.? 

Think intensely of the working of any machine with 
which you are familiar. Can you picture the motion 
of rollers, wheels, levers, etc.? Close your eyes, try to 
imagine yourself working at it. Do you feel any motor 
tendencies.? Localise them. Refer them to the mental 



160 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

picture. Are they connected with any verbal images 
or innervations? To what extent do words enter in 
the motor process? What other parts of the body are 
affected? 

Try to get the meaning of the following: 
Since $ (z) is uniform, an irreducible infinity of 
degree n for $ (z) is an irreducible infinity of degree 
w-)-l for $/ (z). Moreover $' (z), being uniform, has 
no infinity which is not an infinity of $ (z) ; thus the 
order of $' (z) is 2 {n -{-!), or its order is greater than 
that of $ (z) by an integer which represents the number 
of distinct irreducible infinities of $ {z), no account 
being taken of their degree. If, then, a function be 
of the order m, the order of its derivative is not less 
than w-f-l and is not greater than Sm. Forsyth, A. R., 
Theory of Functions of a Complex Variable, 258. 

Read this over carefully. Try to get the connection. 
Do you feel any strain ? Localise it. Are there any motor 
tendencies? Is there any articulatory accompaniment? 

4. Fatigue. 

(a) Literary. 

How deadly tired I was in those days I do not think 
I myself knew until I went to Boston one evening to 
help discuss sweating at the Institute of Technology. 
I had an hour to spare, and went around into Beacon 
Street to call upon a friend. I walked mechanically up 
the stoop and rang the bell. My friend was not in, 
said the servant who came to the door. Who should she 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 161 

say called? I stood and looked at her like a fool; I 
had forgotten my name. . . . Until I actually read 
my name on my card it was as utterly gone as if I had 
never heard it. — ^Riis, J. A., The Making of an 
American, 306. 

For eight years I taught in public elementary day 
schools in a cotton town, and in all the schools in which 
I was a teacher, there was a great proportion of factory 
children — I have seen them fall asleep over their lesson- 
books or tasks, after they have been in the factory all 
the morning (six hours). — Clarke, A., The Effects of the 
Factory System, 97. 

(h) Eooperimental. 

Mark a's for an hour in the morning, and for an hour 
when you are tired, late at night, after heavy work, 
etc. Note the difference in the amount and in the error. 

Note the feeling which accompanies fatigue. Localise 
it if possible. Try to intensify the feeling by straining 
the muscles in the area involved, by wrinkling the fore- 
head intensely, etc. 

Can you distinguish drowsiness from fatigue, or lack 
of interest, or unwillingness to do the work, from fatigue ? 
What conditions operate in fatigue which are not present 
in the other states.? 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

Of the physiological constituents of the at- 
tentive process the organic and the sensory are 

more or less instinctive and so do not involve 
11 



162 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

much development. The motor, on the other 
hand, goes through a number of stages of de- 
velopment. 

1. Motor. Movements may be (1) reflex, or 
instinctive, (2) ideomotor, or (3) voluntary. 

(a) Instinctive. In instinctive or primitive 
attention a stimulus calls forth a motor response 
without further thought on the part of the indi- 
vidual. The sensorimotor process is realised 
automatically by virtue of the inlierent nature 
of the nervous system. A reflex difl*ers from 
an instinctive movement in that the former is 
simple in character and usually consists of a 
single movement, as, the winking of an eyelash, 
or sneezing. An instinct, however, consists of a 
series of coordinated movements which involve 
a larger area. A sudden sound, for example, 
may cause a child to turn, lift its hands, and run 
without. The whole process is reahsed in a 
purely automatic manner.^^ 

(b) Ideomotor. Such instinctive movements 
leave motor traces which facilitate further action 
and control. Moreover, the movements them- 

" See Morgan, C. Lloyd, Habit and Instinct. Kirkpatrick, 
E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study. Hobhouse, L. T., Mind in 
Evolution, Chs. Ill, IV. Darwin, C, The Descent of Man, Chs. 
II, III. Loeb, J., Comp. Phys. of the Br. and Comp. Psych., 
Ch. XIII. Baldwin, J. M., Development and Evolution, Chs. 
V, VI. James, W., Princ. of Psych., Ch. XXIV. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 163 

selves become connected in a more or less defi- 
nite manner with situations both real and ideal. 
The instinctive responses become more accurate 
and refined.^^ Any unnecessary movements 
which do not give pleasure or satisfaction fall 
away through a lack of such stimuli as impel 
repetition. The selected responses on the other 
hand become closely bound with impressions, 
images, and ideas. When attention is directed 
to a situation which is more familiar, the mere 
impression or idea results in a series of coordi- 
nated movements which effect a definite purpose 
with comparatively little waste. In such a case 
the action is ideomotor. ~No consciousness of 
the act as such is involved. Simply the situation 
alone, as impression, image, or what not, excites 
proper motor coordination and control. Com- 
mon examples are those situations in which re- 
vived series of images call forth a series of 
unconscious acts on our part. In attending to 
some object, for instance, we unconsciously place 
it in a certain position, get material to fix it, if 
necessary, and the like. In attention to some 
ideal situation, as the thought of a book, or the 
image of a picture, one similarly feels impelled 

'"See Thorndike, E. L., Animal Intelligence. 



164 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

to go for the book, look at the picture, ask for it, 
and so on.^^ 

(c) Voluntary. When there is conscious 
selection of a movement, when an idea or image 
strongly impels action as preferential to other 
possible actions, when conscious choice is involved, 
the control is voluntary. On the ideal side there 
are usually deliberation and selection as already 
explained. On the motor side there is either an 
image of some action or a series of motor inner- 
vations and tendencies due to the dominance of 
an image or idea. When the situation to be 
realised is remote, the motor control becomes 
centred in a series of means. When the means 
have been worked out ideally and a course of 
action has been selected, the process of realisa- 
tion goes ahead almost automatically. The 
situation in question is fixated and the various 
aspects call forth motor responses of the kind 
which have been selected. In the choice of any 
series of actions, the general tendency and direc- 
tion alone seem to be involved. Any further 
amplification and refinement become effected 
only when the actual process of control is under 
way. Further deliberation and choice may at 

=» James, W., Princ, Ch. XXVI. Baldwin, J. M., Ment. Dev., 
Pt. III. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 165 

time halt the process of control whenever such 
amplification becomes necessary. One who is 
seeking means to improve his work, who is con- 
fronted with a new problem, who is placed in a 
predicament, and the like, must select ways and 
means, try them, correct his errors, think out new 
plans, apply them, compare the results with 
previous efforts, and the like. The sensory and 
the motor intermingle, one reinforcing the 
other.^^ 

In the order of acquisition, random move- 
ments precede the more coordinated and these 
are followed by selected and serial adjustments. 
In pathological conditions, however, a reverse 
order seems to be emphasised. The voluntary 
coordinations, such as are found in speaking and 
writing, are lost first. Then come such stages 
as partial ataxia, rhythmic deafness, and general 
ataxia. 

The general order of sensorimotor develop- 
ment is indicated in the following table :^^ 

~ See Woodworth, R. S., 'The Accuracy of a Voluntary Move- 
ment,' Psych. Rev., Mon. SujJ., 3:Pts. VII, VIII. Munsterberg, 
H., Onmdziige der Psychologie, l:Ch. XV. Stout, G. F., Man. 
of Psych., Bk. IV, Ch. X. 

==5 Baldwin, J. M., Ment. Dev., Third ed., 390. 



166 



ATTENTION AND INTEEEST 



1. Preimita- 

tive sugges- 
tion 



Order of Acquisition 

f Hearing of 
sounds 
Random and in- 
herited move- 
ments 
Movements co- 
ordinated by 
simple sugges- 
tion, pleasure 

(_ and pain, etc. 



S. Simple 
iniitative< 
suggestion 



Recognition of 
objects 

Words and 
tunes 

Imperfect artic- 
ulation 

Slight power of 
song 



3. Persistent 
imitation 



Understanding 
of speech 

Use of objects, 
etc. 

Voluntary co- 
ordination of 
movements : 
speaking 
writing 
music per- 
forming 

Visual interpre- 
tation of signs 
and reading 

Table 



Order of Loss 
A Cortical deafness ' 
Motor aphasia 



General ataxia 



Object blindness 
Verbal deafness 
Rhythmic deaf- 
ness 
Partial ataxia 
Sensory aphasia 
Sensory 

agraphia 
Motor amusia 

Verbal amnesia 

Apraxia, psychic 
blindness, etc. 

Amnesic aphasia 
Amnesic 

agraphia 
Amnesic amusia 



Alexia 



Dysphasia 2 



Dyslogia 1 



XL 



§IV. EXPLANATION 

1. Organic. The changes in respiration 
which form a part of the attentive process are 
due in part to the locaHsation of control and to 
the inhibition thereby necessary. Those parts of 
the organism which are not called into play need 
not function so vigorously, and so do not necessi- 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 167 

tate the usual respiration. This is especially true 
in the case of mental application and in many of 
the laboratory tests which involve visual fixation, 
tactile reaction, and the like. Moreover, breath- 
ing may, by becoming too prominent, form a 
center of attention in itself or interfere with con- 
centration to other aspects of the situation. 
Vasoconstriction, changes in pulse, etc., like 
other biological aspects can not yet be fully ex- 
plained. With respect to attention, however, it 
is highly probable that such changes are neces- 
sary whenever effort becomes localised. The 
general tonicity of the system loses its more or 
less uniform character and becomes emphasised 
in those portions of the organism which are 
called actively into play. Increased demands by 
one part of the system necessitate some deple- 
tion in other parts. This is probably effected by 
vasoconstriction and other changes. 

2. Sensory. The function of the sensory 
adjustments in the process of attention is the 
fixation of the situation in the field of clearness 
and distinctness. The adaptations and instinct- 
ive changes in the end organs facilitate the 
reception of impressions jsvhile the motor accom- 
modations and movements serve to select aspects 
of the given field and to bring them out more 



168 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

distinctly and clearly. When such fixation is 
accomplished more accurate and refined control 
becomes possible. 

3. Motor. Motor adjustments and attitudes 
are essential in attention, not only to give greater 
distinctness and clearness, but, in more ideal 
processes, to indicate meaning and direction to 
the ideas and images which arise. The function 
of the motor attitude in meaning tends to be 
overlooked because it is so closely connected with 
the impression or image, and because it often 
exists only as a tendency. But without the 
motor attitude the visual or other image or im- 
pression would have little distinctive meaning. 
Visual differences aid in reviving such character- 
istic motor tendencies, but in themselves are no 
guarantee for any specific signification. This 
is shown in the early stages of a child's develop- 
ment and in pathological cases of apraxia. 

The fact that the child emphasises use and 
motor response in his definitions leads one to 
attribute the meaning and signification of ob- 
jects and words to motor attitudes and tenden- 
cies. In a Boy's Dictionary of 215 words 
compiled by F. E. Wolff, the following defini- 
tions are given :^* 

^See Chamberlain, A. F., The Child, 146. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 169 

Kiss is if you hug and kiss somebody. 
Mast is what holds the sail on top of a ship. 
Nail is something to put things together. 
Quarrel is if you begin a little fight. 
Ring is what you wear on your finger. 

Binet obtained a similar series as shown in the 
following :^^ 

A knife is something which cuts. 

Water is something to drink. 

A hat is something to put on the head. 

A box is to put things into. 

A piece of sugar is to eat. 

It is of interest to note that Webster in his 
Dictionary emphasises use and function to al- 
most the same extent as do children.^® 

Even in adult consciousness there seems to be 
nothing inherent in a visual situation as such 
which gives it a distinctive meaning. Why one 
object should be called 'Pie,' and eaten, and an- 
other 'Cover,' and placed on a bowl is not evident 
from the appearance of each, in itself. Only by 
a process of motor experience does each acquire 
a meaning. Similarly, 'Come,' and 'Go' have 
nothing in them as mere sounds to indicate ac- 
tions peculiar to each. Sweet points out the fact 

^"^ Binet, Alfred, 'Perceptions d'Enfants,' Bev. Phil, 30:582-611. 
^^ See Barnes, 'A Study of Children's Interests,' Studies in 
Education, Ed. by Earl Barnes. 



170 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

that for some Germans the sound 'het/ stands 
for 'head,' 'hat,' and 'had.' Meaning in each of 
these three cases can not be due to the sound as 
such but must be accompanied in part by the 
motor attitude. In apraxia a loss of meaning is 
seen by the confusion which arises when a patient 
seeks to use objects. The visual situation is 
present but it seems to have no special significa- 
tion for the patient. One object is used for 
another. 

The patient will put his breeches on one shoulder and 
his hat upon the other, will bite into the soap and lay 
his shoes on the table, or take his food into his hand 
and throw it down again, not knowing what to do with 
it, etc." 

The diffusions and innervations which are pres- 
ent in attention to ideas or images probably 
serve to give meaning to the otherwise barren 
representations. By giving meaning, such motor 
attitudes serve to give direction and associative 
impulsion, for without meaning, one series of 
ideas would do just as well as another. Added 
vividness likewise results because of the motor 
attitude. 

In processes of deliberation which result in 
decision but no immediate action, it is the motor 

"James, W., Princ, 1:52. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 171 

attitude which determines selection and choice. 
Complete reaction may be unnecessary to decide 
whether or not one series of ideas or the other 
will result in satisfaction or pleasure, and the 
motor attitude takes its place. According as 
experience is more or less thorough and extensive 
will such attitude prove true. When an attitude 
is misleading, we call the judgment or the deci- 
sion false, i.e.f if the attitude were fully realised, 
the actual manipulation and control would not 
effect what the attitude signified. None the less, 
whether right or wrong, the attitude is the de- 
termining factor in such ideal deliberation. The 
motor attitude becomes especially prominent in 
cases of conflict. When the smooth flow of 
thought, or the even rhythm of reading is blocked 
by a strange idea or expression which interferes 
with further interpretation and appreciation, a 
disturbance arises which manifests itself in motor 
expression of some sort. Such excitement may 
become extremely marked. It may develop into 
actual movement, or it may end in explosive 
expression. 

4. Fatigue. In the metabolic changes due to 
sensorimotor activity waste products are found. 
In muscular work it has been established that 

^ See Sidis, Boris, Psychopathological Researches, Ch. VI. 



172 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

CO2 is generated from the oxidisation of some 
of carbon constituents of the muscle. The 
glycogen gradually disappears. Sarcolactic acid 
likewise accumulates.^^ When there is an excess 
of sarcolactic acid and acid potassium phosphate 
in the muscle it loses its irritability and contract- 
ility. It is less easily stimulated. It responds 
less easily in an accurate and determinate man- 
ner, in other words, it is physiologically fatigued. 
If the fatigue becomes too great there may fol- 
low a total lack of response to stimulation. It 
is evident that as fast as waste products are 
formed the muscle loses in material by this pro- 
cess of decomposition. This also tends to inter- 
fere with the muscle response. 

The location of the physiological effect of 
fatigue is not in the muscle directly. By experi- 
ment fatigue has been found to operate in the" 
motor plates. If, for example, one voluntarily 
lifts a weight or pulls a spring with the finger 
till fatigue prevents further response by such 
central stimulation, the finger will still respond 
to direct electrical stimulation, i.e., the muscle 
will contract in response to the electric stimula- 
tion. As the nerve fibre can not be perceptibly 
fatigued, only the motor end plates remain as 

=»HoweU, W. H., Phys., Ch. II. 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 173 

the seat of fatigue. So, too, if a nerve is elec- 
trically stimulated till no further muscle re- 
sponse is possible, the muscle will respond when 
directly stimulated. By elimination, the end 
plates remain.^^ Finally, if a muscle is placed 
in a glass of curare, no contraction will be 
effected if the nerve is stimulated, while direc- 
tion stimulation of the muscle will still be effect- 
ive. In this case the poison acts on the motor 
end plates.^^ 

The changes which go on in the cortex are not 
so clearly known. Various facts, however, lead 
one to suppose that metabolic changes of some 
kind go on in the brain. Mosso, for example, 
found an increase in temperature in the brain 
correspondent with heightened mental activity. 
Since heat is the result of chemical change it is 
probable that some metabolism goes on in such 
a case. Hodge showed that in the case of the 
sparrow the spinal ganglion cells were shrunken 
at the end of the day and fuller after a night's 
rest. Waller offers the following series of tests : 
If the gastrocnemius or leg muscle of a frog is 
excited by electric stimulation of the brain and 

*> Waller, A. D., Phys., Ch. X. 

*^ Practical Physiology, by A. P. Beddard, L. Hill, J. S. Edkins, 
and J. J. R. Macleod, Ch. IX. 



174 ATTENTION AND INTEREST . / 

biilb till it no longer responds, it can still be 
excited by direct stimulation of the sciatic nerve. 
When such stimulation fails to excite response, 
a third series of contractions can be effected by 
means of direct excitation of the muscle. The 
fatigue in the first instance is probably condi- 
tioned by cerebral factors. Whether there is a 
less ready response within the cell itself, or 
whether the seat lies in the connections between 
the cell and the neurons, or what the process is, 
has not been determined. Connected with the 
whole process is probably the devitalised condi- 
tion of the blood through the fatigue by- 
products. 

The external conditions which produce fatigue 
are well known. Any thing which gives rise to 
the intrinsic conditions discussed in the above 
paragraph will cause fatigue. Excessive stimula- 
tion of some organ, muscle, etc., without intervals 
for recuperation will bring about fatigue. A 
lack of rest will have a similar effect. Pre- 
disposing conditions are a lack of proper nour- 
ishment, insufficient oxygination of the blood, or 
devitalisation through sickness, poison, shock, 
etc. Such conditions will render normal exer- 
tions fatiguing. 

In mental application it might seem that the 



THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT 175 

muscles are not called into any activity of ac- 
count. Simple inhibition of movement, however, 
is a considerable strain and calls the muscles into 
play just as does more expressive action. ^^ The 
more active innervations and motor attitudes, 
their constant changing and shifting as the 
series of ideas change, the motor diffusions, and 
the like also deplete motor energy to a consider- 
able extent. 

^ Yale Psych. Stud., Psych. Rev., Mon. Slip., 7:141-184, 'Analy- 
sis of Reaction Movements,' by C. H. Judd, C. N. McAllister, and 
W. M. Steele. 



CHAPTER V 

RECAPITULATION 

§ I. DEFINITION OF ATTENTION 

Attention must be considered from two points 
of view, (1) the sensory or ideal and (2) the 
motor or physiological. Without the other, 
either is more or less empty and meaningless- 
The result of the sensorimotor control is dis- 
tinctness and clearness within the given field. 
Considering these aspects, we may define atten- 
tion thus : 

Attention is a process of sensorimotor 
control which tends to increase the clear- 
ness and distinctness of the given field. 

§ II. OUTLINE OF ASPECTS 

We have then two aspects of attention, the 
subjective and the objective. The subjective 
aspect includes the sensory (ideal) and the motor 
(physiological) processes. The objective aspect 
includes both qualitative and quantitative 
changes. Under the former we have clearness 
and distinctness. Under the latter we have the 
size of the field of attention, the fluctuation of 
minimal stimuli, and facilitation or arrest of the 

176 



RECAPITULATION 



177 



parts of the field in their temporal or spatial 
relations. In outline form the subjective process 
and the objective effects may be given as follows : 
Subjective Objective 



Qualitative 
Clearness 
Distinctness 
Persistence 

Quantitative 
Fluctuation 
Unity 
Facilitation 
Arrest 



Motor (physiological) 
Organic 
Respiration 
Vasoconstriction 
Circulation 
Sensory 

Accommodation 
Fixation 
Motor 
Diifusion 
Innervation 
Full control 
Sensory (ideal) 
Fusion, etc. 

Free association / 

Deliberation 

§ III. Outline of Stages 
The stages of attention may be outlined as 
follows : 



Primary 

Sense stimulation 
Instinctive motor re- 
sponse with waste 
Lack of definite direct- 
ion (residual bases 
formed) 
12 



Assimilative 

Sense stimulation plus 

ideal reinforcement 
Motor control through 
unconscious action and 
habit 
Direction still external 



178 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Secondary 

Definite guidance by images or ideas 
Construction of a means cognised as such 
Persistence of the means by association with 

an end 
Direction internal 

§ IV. Outline of Conditions 
Objective conditions which tend to impel at- 
tention are: 

Difference 
Quality 
Intensity 
(Extensity) 
Change 
Quality 
Intensity 
(Extensity) 
Pleasure-pain 
Time 

Subjective conditions w^hich facilitate persist- 
ence of attention are : 

Preadjustment 
Reinforcement 
Practice 
Pause (rest) 
Natural vitality 
Mental ability^ 

* Compare the discussions in: Pillsbury, W. B., Attention. 
Titchener, E. B., The Psychology of Feeling and Attention. 
Roerich, Edouard, L' Attention Spontanie et Vohintaire. Nayrac, 



EECAPITULATION 179 

Jean-Paul, Physiologie et Psychologie de V Attention. Serol, M., 
'Analyse de I'Attention,' Bev. de Phil, 7:597-620 (Rev. in Psych. 
Bui, 3:140-143). McDougall, W., 'The Physiological Factors of 
the Attention-Process,' Mind, 11:316-351, 12:289-302, and 473-488. 
Kohn, H. E., 'Zur Theorie de Aufmerksamkeit,' Abhand. z. Phil 
«. ihrer Gesch., 5. Shand, A. F., *An Analysis of Attention,' 
Mind, 3:449-473, and 'Attention and Will,' Mind, 4:450-471. 
Bradley, F. H., 'On Active Attention,' Mind, 11:1-30, and 'Is 
There Any Special Activity of Attention?' Mind, 11:305-323. 
Calkins, M, W., dn Int. to Psych,, 'Appendix,' Sect. VII. 



PART II 
INTEREST 



Part II 
Interest 



CHAPTER VI 

THE MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

On its motor side, interest is essentially a 
striving, a conation, an appetition, a tendency 
towards something. An attitude is taken towards 
a situation, an impulsion is felt, a desire to come 
into closer relationship with an object is present. 
Between the subject and the object there is an 
unrealised condition felt in its motor aspect as 
a strain, a stress, a moment of tendency towards 
further control. One is interested, for example, 
in some object in a show window, a tennis racket, 
book, or what not. One feels, or has, or takes an 
interest in the object. The 'feel' of the interest, 
its existence als a psychological fact is dependent 
upon the motor attitude which the object in ques- 
tion calls forth. Motor tendencies or incipient 
movements are excited by the object, a general 
attitude towards it is taken, a certain anticipa- 
tion is aroused. This attitude may be felt as a 

183 



184 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

general restlessness, a motor 'set,' or at times as 
a general thrill. If further contact with the 
stimulating object is possible, this motor atti- 
tude may become more explicit in a series of 
actual movements and manipulations. The in- 
terest which a child shows for a toy emphasises 
this motor aspect. With young children who 
have less control over their actions there are 
movements of the hands, face and body. Some- 
times there are little cries of glee or other expres- 
sions to indicate the direction which the interest 
has taken. When the object is under the child's 
control the motor tendencies become more or less 
manifest in a number of actions, manipulations, 
and attempts at control of the object. 

Where interest is felt in some ideal situation, 
as in a story, a problem, etc., the motor tenden- 
cies are not so evident. Over and above the atti- 
tude which gives meaning to the situation in the 
center of attention are those tendencies which 
impel one to hurry on to the end, to reach the 
climax, to work out the solution, to facilitate 
fuller control of the object in question, and the 
like. Sometimes the motor attitude becomes so 
strong that it overrides normal realisation and 
seeks to avoid the more gradual control which 
will lead to the desired end. The individual will 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 185 

then turn to the end of the book to see how the 
story ends, or will go to a 'Key' to find the solu- 
tion of his problem, or will seek others to get 
further information and help. 

The motor aspect of interest is essentially tele- 
ological, end-seeking. It points ahead and to 
the future. One feels interest in a situation in 
that the situation excites innervations and ten- 
dencies, which, when more fully realised, will 
bring about a condition of pleasure, ease, satis- 
faction, and the like. A child has an interest 
in a toy, for example, and realises that interest 
when his manipulations and control bring about 
a condition of rest, ease, satisfaction, or pleasure. 
In so far as the future moment is realised will 
the interest continue. Should there be a check 
or disappointment, the interest will wane. Thus, 
the child may find the toy not to his liking, or 
perhaps painful and dissatisfying. His interest 
in it will then be less intense upon another occa- 
sion. Even if the object itself is only an indirect 
means to the realisation of a future moment, it 
will, on that account, impel interest, and excite 
tendencies towards fuller control. A factory 
girl, for example, can hardly be said to have any 
interest in the rolling of cigars, as such. But in 
so far as she gets twenty five cents a hundred. 



186 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

will her interest hold in the process to the extent 
of making five or six hundred a day. The pros- 
pective situation impels control of present con- 
ditions, even though these conditions are more 
or less disagreeable. 

Interest, as thus described, is not a feeling of 
pleasure, ease, satisfaction, quiescence, or what 
not. In themselves, such feelings are passive 
and lack the dynamic aspect characteristic of 
interest. Interest is dynamic, it points ahead, 
it is a form of striving, of motor impulsion, and 
is felt as a conation or motor attitude. Feeling 
of pleasure, satisfaction, etc., is of a more passive 
nature. As felt it lies enmeshed in the present. 
One who is enjoying the taste of fruit, or the 
fragrance of a flower, or the esthetic satisfaction 
arising from the contemplation of a painting or 
a statue, feels pleasure, and this pleasure exists 
in the present. One may lean back, as it were, 
and absorb it. If such satisfaction or pleasure, 
however, is not present, and is possible only 
through control of some situation in the center 
of attention, an interest in the situation will ex- 
ist and will rouse motor attitudes and tendencies. 
These tendencies are felt as interest and guide 
further manipulation. One may, for example, 
see a picture for sale, and be excited to the extent 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 187 

of asking the price of it, and of making ar- 
rangements to buy it. One does not then lean 
back, but becomes active, or feels impelled so 
to do.^ 

In so far as interest points ahead, it has some 
more or less definite object in view. Aspects of 
a situation come to have a value to the individual 
to a great extent because of the tendencies and 
attitudes which they are able to arouse. This 
psychological phase of interest must be consid- 
ered in any economic treatment of value. No 
doubt the amount of labor which is put into 
an object will condition, in part, the value which 
such an object possesses. So, too, will the 
amount of the material available, the supply of 
articles at hand, and the like, affect value. An 

^Compare the descriptions of interest in: Volkmann, Wilhelm, 
Lehrbuch der Psychologie, 2:206, 207. Stumpf, Carl, Tonpsy- 
chologie, 1:68, 69, and 2:279-280. Baldwin, J. M., Handbook of 
Psychology, 'Feeling and Will,' 139-146, and Ch. VII. Sully, J., 
The Human Mind, 1:163. Stout, G. F., Analytic Psychology, 
1:224-225, and Bk. II, Ch. III. Calkins, M. W., Introduction to 
Psychology, 137, 140, 488. Titchener, E, B., The Psychology of 
Feeling and Attention, and Out. of Psych., (New revision). 
Dewey, J., 'Interest as Related to Will,' Sec. Sup. to the Her. 
Yearbook, 1903. Related treatments from the standpoint of 
'value' will be found in: Ehrenfels, Christian von. System der 
Werttheorie, 1, 'Psychologie des Begehrens.' Kriebig, Josef 
Clemens, Psychologische Grundlegung eines Systems der Wert- 
theorie. Meinong, Alexius von, Psychologischethische Untersuch- 
ungen zur Werttheorie. Miinsterberg, H., Philosophie der Werte. 
Lipps, Theodor, Vom Fuhlen, Wollen und Denken. 



188 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

important aspect, however, in the determination 
of the value of an object, is the motor attitude 
which it is able to arouse, the tendencies to pos- 
sess it which the object can excite, in short, the 
interest which it possesses for the consumer.^ 

According to the relation in which an interest- 
exciting situation stands to the individual, we 
may, on the motor side, distinguish at least three 
forms of interest, namely, curiosity, expectation, 
and desire. 

Curiosity, expectation and desire. When a 
situation is partly known and partly unknown, 
the known aspects excite motor tendencies along 
grooves which have been formed by previous ex- 
perience. The known elements may have been 
experienced in a form similar to that in which 
they are in the partially known situation, or they 
may have been combined in a different manner 
or with different situations. Thej^ excite an 
attitude which may or may not be fit for the new 
situation. In so far as aspects of the situation 
are not known, they impel innervations and ten- 
dencies towards a further control which will 
dispel the uncertainty which is aroused, and 

== See Jevons, W. S., The Theory of Political Economy, Ch. III. 
Wieser, Friedrich von, Natural Value, Eng. tr. by C. A. Malloch. 
Clark, John Bates, The Distribution of Wealth. Compare the 
discussions in Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Karl Marx, etc. 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 189 

which will produce a feeling of rest and quies- 
cence. Such attitudes and tendencies are felt 
as interest. 

When a situation is not immediately present 
but is awaited with feelings of strain, tension, 
and sometimes with anxiety, we have the interest 
of expectation. The situation in question is 
more or less fully known, but immediate control 
is not possible because the situation is not 
present. Control can not be realised. Tenden- 
cies to such control, however, are present, and it 
is the attitude taken with reference to the situa- 
tion which is to come which constitutes the basis 
of the interest. Since reaction is impossible, only 
the motor 'set' can be present. 

A strong form of interest is conscious desire. 
Not only is there a prospective situation or ter- 
minus to which the individual takes an attitude, 
but, in addition, such attitude stimulates him to 
further effort, and excites tendencies towards a 
control of the present which will lead to the end 
desired. If such means are not actively sought, 
desire may lapse into mere wish. One may wish 
for the pot of gold at the other end of the 
rainbow, for example, but one actively desires 
control of an object, in that one works in the 
present, removes obstacles, seeks aid, and the 



190 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

like, so as to reach the coveted situation. The 
motor tendencies and innervations which are felt 
to control a present means which will lead to the 
end are felt as desire and constitute the motor 
aspect of the interest. 

A few points of difference between these three 
forms of interest may be noted. Expectation 
and desire both have reference to some prospec- 
tive situation. The former, however, is a more 
passive state. In expectation, realisation is de- 
pendent either upon the activity or lack of 
activity of some one else, or upon external con- 
ditions which seem out of the individual's control. 
Time, or change in extrinsic conditions, or action 
on the part of another is what separates the in- 
terested person from the state towards which he 
is looking. He can do little on his own account to 
further realisation of the situation which he wants. 
He feels tendencies, however, which are excited 
by the anticipation of this situation, and so feels 
an interest in it. In active desire, on the other 
hand, means are sought with a view of coming 
into closer contact with the situation desired. 
The individual begins to work out his general 
attitude into a series of definite reactions. He 
bends the present towards the future and recon- 
structs what is under his immediate control for 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 191 

the purpose of realising some prospective mo- 
ment. Curiosity differs from both desire and 
expectation in that the situation which excites 
it is present and under control of the individual 
concerned. In so far as it is partially unknown, 
its full significance remains in doubt. There is, 
however, a definite starting point from which 
further reaction and control may begin. In ex- 
pectation and desire the situation is remote and 
out of the individual's immediate control.^ 

§ II. ILLUSTRATION 
1. LiTEEARY. 

Compare the states of mind indicated by the 
following selections from Tennyson: 

How dull it is to pause, to make an end. 
To rust unburnish'd, not to shine in use ! 
As tho' to breathe were life. Life piled on life 
Were all too little, and of one to me 
Little remains : but every hour is saved 
From that eternal silence, something more, 
A bringer of new things : and vile it were 
For some three suns to store and hoard myself, 
And this gray spirit yearning in desire 
To follow knowledge like a sinking star, 
Beyond the utmost bound of human thought. 

Ulysses, by Tennyson. 
»See Arnold, F., 'The Psychology of Interest,' Psych. Rev., 13: 

221-238, and 291-315, and 'Interest and Attention,' Psych. Bui, 2: 

361-368. 



192 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

Thej sat them down upon the yellow sand, 
Between the sun and moon upon the shore ; 
And sweet it was to dream of Fatherland, 
Of child and wife, and slave ; but evermore 
Most weary seem'd the sea, weary the oar, 
Weary the wandering fields of barren foam. 
Then some one said, "We will return no more"; 
And all at once they sang, "Our island home 
Is far beyond the wave ; we will no longer roam." 
The Lotus-Eaters, by Tennyson. 

Contrast the two states of mind with reference to (1) 
the motor tendencies, (2) the nature of the situations 
which control action, (3) the future reference of each, 
and (4) the passivity of the feelings of rest and 
quiescence. 

"And now," said she, "we have to get the key of that; 
and who's to touch it, I should like to know !" . . . 

I felt in his pockets, one after another. A few small 
coins, a thimble, and some thread and big needles, a 
piece of pigtail tobacco bitten away at the end, his 
gully with the crooked handle, a pocket compass, and a 
tinder box, were all that they contained, and I began 
to despair. 

"Perhaps it's round his neck," suggested my mother. 

Overcoming a strong repugnance, I tore open his 
shirt at the neck, and there, sure enough, hanging to 
a bit of tarry string, we found the key. At this triumph 
we were filled with hope, and hurried up-stairs, without 
delay, to the little room where he had slept so long, 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 193 

and where his box had stood since the day of his 
arrival. . . . 

"Give me the key," said my mother: and though 
the lock was very stiff, she had turned it and thrown 
back the lid in a twinkling. — Treasure Island, by Steven- 
son, 32. 

Are there any repelling elements in the search? Why 
does it continue.? Does the interest inhere in the key as 
such.? What is the end to be realised.? 

Here I sit at the desk again, watching his eye — 
humbly watching his eye, as he rules a ciphering-book 
for another victim whose hands have just been flattened 
by that identical ruler, and who is trying to wipe the 
sting out with a pocket-handkerchief. I have plenty 
to do. I don't watch his eye in idleness, but because I 
am morbidly attracted to it, in a dread desire to know 
what he will do next, and whether it will be my turn 
to suffer, or somebody else's. A lane of boys beyond me, 
with the same interest in his eye, watch it too. — David 
Copperfield. Dickens. Ch. VII. 

2. Experimental. 

Note the attitude of a child who is interested in a 
toy, a book, etc. Mark the facial expression, the body 
posture, the finger movements, etc. 

Watch a child who Is reading what seems to be an 
interesting book. Note movements of anticipation, ex- 
citement, anxiety to get ahead In the story. 

When you are explaining something to a learner, note 
13 



194 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

your own tendencies to do the work yourself instead 
of letting the learner do it. 

Try to examine your own attitude when you are 
interested in an object, in a story, in the solution of a 
problem, etc. Note feelings of stress, of motor ten- 
dencies, and the like. 

Read the following: Then there came a single call 
on the sea-pipe, and that was the signal. A knot of 
them made one rush of it, cutlass in hand, against the 
door ; and at the same moment, the glass of the skylight 
was dashed in a thousand pieces, and a man leaped 
through and landed on the floor. Before he got to 
his feet, I had clapped a pistol to his back, and ... — 
Kidnapped. Stevenson. 94. 

Do you note any feelings of unrest, of desire to 
continue, of motor innervations towards readjustment, 
or the like? What is the aim of the publisher of a 
serial story who ends part of a chapter with, 'To be 
continued in our next.?' 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

The rise of interest is dependent chiefly upon 
two factors, (1) pleasure-pain, etc., and (2) in- 
stinct. When any situation excites pleasure- 
pain, etc., it is a means of stimulating reaction. 
Such pleasure-pain, etc., however, is not the 
interest which it develops. In connection with 
instinctive behavior it aifords a basis for the 
development of interest. The process is some- 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 195 

what as follows: Any situation which excites 
feelings of shock, pleasure, satisfaction, pain, 
and the like, other things being equal, will arouse 
reaction and attention to it. If such a situation, 
after it has entered the center of the field of 
attention, persists in the focus, and leads to a 
pleasing or satisfying terminus, traces of the 
impressions, reactions, etc., are left in the indi- 
vidual who is attending. As the result of the 
control, residual traces, visual, motor, and the 
like, remain. The situation has then a meaning, 
and, in addition, points to a repetition of the 
terminus which is known to be pleasing or satis- 
fying. When this situation or one like it is 
again before the individual, in addition to in- 
herent impelling powers of its own, it will tend 
to excite an attitude favorable to its persistence 
in the focus of attention. The individual will 
feel impelled to react towards it, to control it, 
to manipulate in the manner which on a former 
occasion resulted in feelings of pleasure, ease, 
satisfaction, quiescence, and the like. The ter- 
minus to which it once led will again be sought. 
In other words, the situation has an interest 
which excites the individual to maintain it in the 
center of attentive control. This interest in an 
attitude over and above any feelings of pleasure 



196 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

which the situation, as such, may be able to 
excite. 

The following account illustrates to some ex- 
tent this process: 

She was holding objects, looking at them, and pulling 
them about for some moments, before they went to her 
mouth. The pleasure of this handling seemed to be 
in the free movement of the objects (seen and felt at 
the same time), not especially in the touch sensations. 
When this new pleasure was exhausted, things went to 
the mouth as before for the enjoyment of touch. ... In 
a few hours the baby was reaching for everything near 
her, and in three days more her desire to lay hold on 
things was the dominant motive of her life. Her grasp- 
ing was still oftener with both hands than one, and was 
somewhat slow, but always accurate.* 

The child's desire to get a 'penny' for a stick 
of candy, his interest in a toy, and the like, are 
common examples. Until experienced, the candy, 
toy, etc., mean little. But after the child has 
eaten the candy, played with the toy, controlled 
the situation which leads to a pleasing or satisfy- 
ing terminus, the sight of the candy, toy, or what 
not, will excite tendencies to control again the 
object in question. The sight of the object 
alone may rouse pleasure. In addition are the 

* Shinn, Milicent Washburn, The Biography of a Baby, 142, 143. 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 197 

revived tendencies to play, manipulate, control, 
and the like, which have previously resulted in 
pleasure, etc. At first, instincts and feelings are 
sufficient to impel attention and stimulate motor 
control. After the child has reacted there is the 
resulting residual motor and ideal basis which 
impels and guides further control. The situa- 
tion is now one which has interest. It means for 
the individual the possibility of realising pleas- 
urable, satisfying, quieting feelings, of obtain- 
ing joy, ease, satisfaction, and the like. It will, 
when again presented, excite motor tendencies to 
play, manipulate, handle, etc., and a desire to 
control it because of the terminus to which pre- 
vious control has shown it to lead. Conscious- 
ness of this end need not be present in distinct 
form, but may lie enmeshed in a fringe of 
meaning. 

The motor, visual, tactile, and other impres- 
sions will leave traces strong enough to excite 
interest even when the toy or other object is 
not before the child. The mere mention of the 
object, its name, a picture of it, etc., will excite 
an interest in the individual strong enough to 
impel attempted control. Verbal and motor ex- 
pressions usually show the presence of such in- 
terest. The motor attitude and innervations 



198 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

which are excited give the feel of interest and 
stamp the object as one which has a value or 
worth. In all this, the feeling of interest should 
not be confused with the more passive feelings 
of ease, satisfaction, pleasure, or quiescence. 

A situation may give rise to pain, dissatisfac- 
tion, unrest, etc. In such a case its repetition will 
also excite interest but of a negative character. 
Motor tendencies will then point away from the 
situation. There will be felt innervations and 
impulses to get away from the disturbing object, 
remove it, destroy it, or do away with it. Thus 
Preyer notes: 

Screaming when water 26° C. was poured over him 
in the bath appeared, a few days after the first experi- 
ment of this sort, even before the bathing, at sight of 
the tub, sponge, and water. Previously, fear had only 
In very rare cases occasioned screaming, now the Idea 
of the cold and wet that were to be expected was enough 
to occasion violent screaming.^ 

The negative interest which the situation 
arouses is the feeling of these motor tendencies 
to react in a manner unfavorable to the persist- 
ence of the object in the focus of consciousness. 
As in the more positive cases of interest, experi- 

" Preyer, W., The Development of the Intellect, Eng. tr. by 
H. W. Brown, 132. 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 199 

ence is necessary before the full meaning of the 
situation can be appreciated. 

Primary, secondary and acquired interest. 
Such interest as is excited by the object itself 
because of the terminus to which it leads di- 
rectly may be called a primary interest. In pri- 
mary interest the object itself is desired and 
fuller control of it is attempted because of its 
inherent power to produce pleasurable or sat- 
isfying feelings. Should the object be more 
remote, should direct control of it be impossible, 
any means which will lead to control of it will 
have an interest in that they excite tendencies 
similar to those roused by the situation itself. 
Thus, if a series of means, a, b, c, . . . etc., lead 
to A, interest in a, b, c, . . . etc., will be felt 
because of the connection which they have with 
A. Such interest which is derived from a pri- 
mary interest may be called a secondary interest. 

The nature of secondary interest emphasises 
the difference between a feeling of interest and 
feelings of pleasure-pain, satisfaction, and the 
like. The means, as such, may be highly unpleas- 
ant or even painful and repelling, and still may 
possess a secondary interest because of some 
pleasing or satisfying terminus to which they 
lead, A child, for example, may be impelled 



200 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

to work sums in arithmetic, run errands, or do 
other disagreeable tasks because of the secondary 
interest which such work possesses. In them- 
selves the means may have little impelling power. 
But as connected with an end which has primary 
interest, they are able to excite secondary 
interest. 

Secondary interest with means pleasurable or 
painful may be represented in the following 
scheme: Let + indicate means which are pleas- 
ing or satisfying in themselves, and — means 
which are painful or dissatisfying. Both lead to 
a situation, P^ which has primary interest. The 
interest in the means is secondary. In both 
cases interest is of a positive character in that it 
leads to a situation which is pleasing or satisfy- 
ing. The following scheme illustrates this posi- 
tive movement: 

agreeable 
S + + + + + 
> P 



Negative interest may be represented in a 
similar manner. In this case the means lead 
away from a situation which is repelling and 
which has a negative interest. Interest of such 
a sort may be represented as follows: 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 201 



+ + + + + s 
p > 



Comparing positive and negative interests, 
both primary (P) and secondary {S) with pleas- 
urable ( + ) and painful ( — ) means, we have 
the following scheme: 

S+ + + + + + + + + +S 

> p p > 



s s 

Positive Negative 

The distinctions illustrated by this diagram 
should be clearly kept in mind. Secondary in- 
terest is often confused with negative interest, 
especially in educational theory and practice. 
Interest in a painful means which leads to some- 
thing positive is very different from that in a 
painful means which leads away from a more 
painful situation, at least as far as the terminus 
is concerned. 

If the means are pleasurable and satisfying 
an interest will tend to develop in them as such. 
If the end has sufficient impelling power to hold 
attention to the means and to excite a secondary 
interest in them, continued experience which re- 
sults in pleasure and satisfaction will develop 
an interest in such means. Such interest may 



202 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

be called an acquired interest. Acquired interest 
may be developed even in the case of means 
which at first are repelling and disagreeable. 
JNIany of our interests in later life are of such a 
character. A child is not born a developed 
mathematician, historian, business man, or what 
not. In fact, attempts to develop him in some 
such specific direction, and to give him practice 
in the necessary technique and routine work, may 
at first entail considerable effort. But as more 
complete control is acquired over means which 
lead to artificial ends, as residual traces allow 
of fuller interpretation, the means come to have 
a value and a worth because of pleasure and 
satisfaction which gradually arise out of their 
control. As the acquired interest grows stronger 
it replaces the artificial end which at first ex- 
cited the secondary interest in the means. Many 
of our scholastic interests have been developed 
in this manner. The mechanical aspects of much 
school work is strengthened by artificial ends be- 
fore the acquired interest is strong enough to 
hold attention to them. Acquired interest is 
like primary interest save that it is the result of 
a secondary interest in the means. Since various 
objects and situations have by social experience 
been found to possess value and worth to the 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 203 

individual, and since first contact with such ob- 
jects or situations may not yield the pleasure 
and satisfaction which fuller control will bring, 
it is often necessary to overcome the inertia of 
the individual by setting artificial ends and in- 
centives and for the time to make the real situ- 
ations of worth a means to the artificial ends. 
Fuller control will then be developed and the 
acquired interest formed. 

If possible, acquired interests should be de- 
veloped from secondary interests of a positive 
character. If negative interest is used there is 
danger that the negative aspect may be associ- 
ated with the means and remain fixed. If these 
means have social worth, the child should be 
attracted rather than repelled by them. Thus, 
a child may do something of a disagreeable na- 
ture to avoid the infliction of pain or the per- 
formance of still more disagreeable tasks. Some 
situation, P^ is then used to impel secondary 
interest to disagreeable means, Sj, which possess 
their interest simply because they are a means 
of avoiding P. This is illustrated by the scheme 

below. 

p s > 

In such a case there is little chance that an 
acquired interest will be developed in the means. 



204 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

The whole process, control of means and thought 
of threatened end, is disagreeable and dissatis- 
fying. The probability is that it will soon be 
forgotten. One who works unwillingly under 
threat of punishment will not be impelled to con- 
tinue such work or to renew old associations 
with it. 

§ IV. EXPLANATION 

The motor tendencies, which, as felt, consti- 
tute one part of interest, are the expressive side 
of the sensorimotor unit. The direction in which 
they point is dependent upon the results of 
previous experience. Tendencies of appetition 
towards some situations and of aversion from 
other situations are due to the feelings of pleas- 
ure-pain, satisfaction, dissatisfaction, etc., which 
resulted from previous control. The appetition 
or aversion does not make the situation attrac- 
tive or repelling. The attractive or repelling 
nature of a situation is due to former experience 
which has developed meaning in one or the other 
direction. Representation of the situation will 
then excite the motor tendencies towards or from 
it. The strength of such tendencies and the per- 
sistence with which they continue may be taken 
in part as a measure of the impelling or repelling 
character of the situation. 



MOTOR ASPECT OF INTEREST 205 

From a biological point of view, selection and 
development of some forms of control would be 
practically impossible without such motor ten- 
dencies and attitudes. The gliding about of 
abstract ideas or cold, formal images can not give 
rise to the warmth and moving power of interest. 
Summation of a number can hardly produce what 
one does not possess as such. All impressions 
do not and can not have equal impelling power, 
and if direction and purposive meaning are to 
be given to some in preference to others, use 
and function as determined by motor control 
must be present. If an individual reacted 
equally to all impressions or ideas of sufficient 
vividness to force their way into consciousness, 
he would develop an incoherency of action which 
would injure or destroy him. Even the most 
scatter-brained person must cling to some simple 
interest, must have some tendencies which direct 
his efforts in a more or less specific direction 
when situations of a furthering or hindering na- 
ture arise. Such interests may be primitive and 
immediate but they are necessary if the individual 
is not to be submerged in chaos and confusion. 
In fact, the vividness and inherent, impelling 
nature of situations which can result only in 
harm must be stamped with a proper value, must 



206 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

deveiop a negative interest, must excite motor 
tendencies to destroy, or remove, or withdraw 
from the situation. The clang of the bell on the 
street, for example, means one thing, that of 
the bell at home means another, according as 
the motor attitude points one way or the other. 

This purposive character shows the inadequacy 
of those views which consider interest simply as 
pleasure-pain. Many situations of inherent, 
pleasure-pain exciting power maj^ upon first 
impression, hold attention for a while, but in 
short time, wane and die away ; and upon further 
representation, they may fail to excite even a 
faint glimmer of interest. If reaction towards 
such situations shows their useless or perhaps 
harmful nature, their passive and superficial 
pleasure-pain aspects are passed by or ignored. 
They will then lack interest in spite of their 
inherent, impelling nature. This dynamic dif- 
ference beween pleasure-pain and interest ac- 
counts also for the intense interest which may be 
excited by objects of an apparently commonplace 
or even repelling character. Objects may lack 
the surface qualities which attract and first con- 
tact with them may yield but little pleasure, may, 
in fact, be repelling or painful. Were interest 
simply a feeling of pleasure-pain, etc., such ob- 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 207 

jects would not be able, as they are, to excite a 
positive interest. It is the use to which such 
objects can be put, the service which they are 
able to yield, the pleasure or satisfaction to which 
they lead, which determines the interest in them. 
When present, they excite motor tendencies to 
react in the manner which on previous occasions 
resulted in pleasure or satisfaction. Since the 
interest may be present as soon as the object is 
cognised, and since no pleasure can result until 
motor control has been realised, the two, pleasure 
and interest, can hardly be the same. Interest 
is developed on the bases of pleasure, etc., and 
instinct, but it is neither of these. A common 
example is interest in a book, or a golf -stick, or 
a packing case, or a time-table, etc., which, pre- 
vious to fuller control, are more or less indiffer- 
ent as far as pleasure-pain is concerned. 
Reaction at first may, in fact, have been of a 
purely instinctive character.^ 

* Much of the discussion of the motor and physiological aspects 
of attention apply to interest. Discussion of these would simply 
be unnecessary duplication. See Chapter III, 2, and Chapter IV. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 

§ I. DESCRIPTION 

In its simplest form, interest on the cognitive 
side consists of a fringe of meaning or perhaps 
a dim awareness of the future moment which is 
to be realised. There need be no distinct image 
or thought of such a future state. The impres- 
sions carry with them, as it were, a wavy, blurred 
outline of what is to come, a kind of iridescent 
halo of possibility. When the interest exists, 
the object is looked at in another light. It means 
more to the individual. It lingers longer in the 
center of the attentive field. More often, how- 
ever, the interesting object or situation excites 
an image or a train of ideas which point to the 
future moment which is to be realised. These 
images or ideas are present at times only as 
fragments, only as piecemeal signs to point the 
way. Sometimes they rise, give motor direction, 
and flit away, leaving only the motor attitude. 
Often only the verbal image is present. A man 
who is gazing intently at a railroad time-table 
may show interest in what, under other circum- 

208 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 209 

stances, might not hold the attention for more 
than a moment. On the cognitive side the inter- 
est consists in the images and ideas which are 
aroused by the directions, figures, etc., in the 
thoughts of future moments of control which 
will yield satisfaction or pleasure. The printed 
schedule may excite anticipations of country 
life, pleasant rambles, agreeable companions, 
and the like. It may revive thoughts of work to 
be accomplished, of engagements to be met, of 
effort to be put forth, of control which will end 
in ease, satisfaction or pleasure. The time-table 
is of interest in that it is able to make connec- 
tions with future moments which affect the indi- 
vidual. On the ideal side such interest consists 
of the images and ideas which point to the future 
situations which are to be realised. 

In interest in present, concrete situations, the 
ideal aspect is merged in the sensory. There is 
present an ideal trend which is transmitted out- 
wards through motor channels. Thus, as far as 
the sensory elements are concerned, there is little 
difference between a trunk or case on the street, 
and the particular trunk or case in one's room 
which contains art treasures, books, implements, 
clothes, hats, or what not. The great difference 
between them, the difference which constitutes 

14 



210 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

the interest in the one, is the meaning which this 
one has, the significance which it bears, the an- 
ticipation which it excites. This meaning, this 
pointing outwards to the future, this prospective 
reference, is often overlooked, because it is so 
closely connected with the predominating motor 
attitude. By comparing situations which have 
interest, with similar situations which have little 
interest, one can more easily distinguish the ideal 
aspect of the interest. 

Where a situation is more or less ideal, as a 
thought, a plan, a mental picture, the revived 
elements are more distinct. They usually exist 
as free images and ideas. A name, for example, 
may stir up a host of associations which circulate 
about the basic thought or image and hold it in 
the center of attention. The parent who is plan- 
ning the future of his child, the inventor who is 
mapping out an outline of some invention, the 
soldier who is thinking of ways and means to 
trap the enemy, the student who is working out 
some problem, — all are examples in point. The 
ideas or images do not usually arise as clean-cut 
totalities, with perfect forms and well rounded 
outlines. Only the faintest glinmier at times is 
present, sometimes only frayed edges and 
quickly vanishing traces. When these are insuf- 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 211 

ficient to direct the motor attitude they are made 
more definite by means of words, drawings, 
graphic outlines, and the like. Thus, one may 
repeat and rerepeat a word which is not under- 
stood, or may seek further light by drawing out 
the parts of a problem, and so on. So long as 
they are vivid enough to direct action, however, 
they pass along in an even flow without articu- 
latory, manual, or other halts. 

Curiosity, expectation and desire. In curi- 
osity, the imagination supplies what the unknown 
elements in an object or situation are unable to 
present in themselves. The individual fits now 
this, now that image or idea to the situation 
which has attracted him. Since the relation of 
the object to the future welfare of the individual 
is partially unknown, he seeks to fill the gap 
by drawing upon the ideal resources which have 
been developed from former experiences. The 
great terror which strikes some when in the pres- 
ence of a situation almost totally unknown is 
due in part to their inability to connect it with 
their personal history. Sometimes a future sit- 
uation is dimly thought or imagined and the indi- 
vidual then may be in a quiver of excitement to 
see what are the possibilities of realisation. The 
curiosity of passers-by is often of such a sort. 



212 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

When expectation is present, the cognitive 
aspect of interest consists chiefly in thoughts and 
ideas of the situation which is to be reahsed. 
There are usually numerous imaginative addi- 
tions which may or may not be realised. These 
embellishments and added imaginative features 
give greater impelling power to the situation 
which is anticipated. The individual who ex- 
pects presents, honors, promotion, and the like, 
may magnify them and ideally enhance the pos- 
sibilities of pleasure and satisfaction to be ob- 
tained from them. When no exaggeration is 
present, the interest centers round some repre- 
sentative idea with the associations which inhere 
in it. The individual then looks forward to 
some situation which has arisen before, and calls 
to mind the pleasing and satisfying incidents 
connected with it. 

In desire, the tendencies excited by the possi- 
bilities of realising a future situation may impel 
the construction of a series of ideal means. Such 
means serve to connect the future with the pres- 
ent. An individual will then work out a series 
of carefully coordinated means which will guide 
him to the situation in view. He may have an 
interest in the solution of a problem. His desire 
to solve it may impel him to think of further in- 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 213 

formation to be obtained, of books or persons 
that will assist him, and so on. Worry, sleep- 
lessness, etc., are often caused by a tumultuous 
and irresistible flow of ideas which fail to satisfy 
conditions, bridge the gap between the aim and 
the present situation, or form a harmonious and 
consistent system. Interest in the means is pres- 
ent because of their connection with the pleasing 
or satisfying terminus. On the cognitive side 
there will be the images, ideas, outlines, etc., of 
the means, and numerous other associated ideas, 
as, of the pleasing terminus, of the results of 
realisation, of similar means or ends, and so on. 
The mere idea of all that is possible in a future 
situation will induce interest in associated ideas, 
will transfer a portion of the interest to other 
objects or ideas which may aid in the realisation 
of the situation which is desired.^ 

§ ii. illustration 

1. Literary. 

Oh, Day, if I squander a wavelet of thee, 

A mite of my twelve hours' treasure, 

The least of thy gazes or glances, 

(Be they grants thou art bound to or gifts beyond 

measure) 
One of thy choices or one of thy chances, 

*See the discussion in the foregoing chapter. 



214 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

(Be they tasks God imposed thee or freaks at thy 

pleasure) 
— My Day, if I squander such labor or leisure, 
Then shame fall on Asolo, mischief on me. 

Thy long blue solemn hours serenely flowing, 
Whence earth, we feel, gets steady help and good — 
Thy fitful sunshine-minutes, coming, going. 
As if earth turned from work in gamesome mood — 
All shall be mine ! But thou must treat me not 
' As prosperous ones are treated, those who live 

At hand here, and enjoy the higher lot, 
In readiness to take what thou wilt give, 
And free to let alone what thou refusest; 
For, Day, my holiday, if thou ill-usest 
Me, who am only Pippa, — old year's sorrow, 
Cast off last night, will come again to-morrow: 
Whereas, if thou prove gentle, I shall borrow 
Sufficient strength of thee for new-year's sorrow. 

'Pippa Passes.' Browning. 

At half -past seven a little door opened, and a Salvation 
Army soldier stuck out his head. "Ayn't no sense 
blockin' the wy up that wy," he said. "Those as 'as 
tickets cawn come hin now, an' those as 'asn't cawn't 
come hin till nine." 

Oh, that breakfast ! Nine o'clock ! An hour and a 
half longer ! The men who held tickets were greatly 
envied. They were permitted to go inside, have a wash, 
and sit down and rest until breakfast, while we waited 
for the same breakfast on the street. — The People of the 
Abyss, Jack London, 123. 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 215 

I well remember the first over-land mail. It was 
brought by Kit Carson in saddle-bags from Taos in 
New Mexico. We heard of his arrival at Los Angeles, 
and waited patiently for his arrival at headquarters. 
His fame then was at its height, from the publication 
of Fremont's books, and I was very anxious to see a man 
who had achieved such feats of daring among the 
wild animals of the Rocky Mountains, and still wilder 
Indians of the Plains. At last his arrival was reported 
at the tavern of Monterey, and I hurried to hunt him 
up. I cannot express my surprise at beholding a small, 
stoop-shouldered man, with reddish hair, freckled face, 
soft blue eyes, and nothing to indicate courage or daring. 
He spoke but little, and answered questions in mono- 
syllables. — Memoirs of Gen. W. T. Sherman, 1:74-75. 

You know what a university is, and a university de- 
gree.'' It is the necessary hall-mark of a man who wants 
to do anything in teaching. My scheme, or dream, is 
to be a university graduate, and then to be ordained. 
By going to live at Christminster, or near it, I shall 
be at headquarters, so to speak, and if my scheme is 
practicable at all, I consider that being on the spot 
will afford me a better chance of carrying it out than 
I should have elsewhere. — Jude the Obscure, Thomas 
Hardy, 4. 

2. Experimental. 

At an election of officers or public officials, note 
expressions which denote an Interest in the outcome. 
Observe the trend of the discussions, the associations 
which are aroused, the ideas which are uttered, etc. 



216 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

In looking through the pages of a 'Reader's Hand- 
book,' or a reference book of 'Phrase and Fable' do you 
stop at parts and read on? Why do you stop at some 
names, references, etc., and not at others? What are the 
associations which determine the halting places, centers 
of interest, etc.? 

When you are interested in some situation, as, a 
vacation trip, a story, a piece of work, etc., note the 
associations which are revived, the time to which they 
refer, their connection with the situation in the focus 
of attention, and the like. 

Why do you work the number of hours which you 
do? Is it the work itself which impels you to further 
effort? How is such work connected with the future? 
What is the aim of the work? What aspects make this 
aim agreeable and satisfying? What associations re- 
volve about the aim? 

Note the different interests which stimulate your ef- 
forts. Compare one with the other. Note the associa- 
tions clustered about each. What are the means to 
which you attend and which hold your interest because 
they point to a possibility of realising one or the other 
ends in view? How have these means been amplified? 
Have you reflected on them, used words, diagrams, etc., 
to give you a better view of the situation towards which 
you are working? 

§ III. DEVELOPMENT 

The development of the cognitive elements 
in interest is from impression to image, and from 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 217 

image to organised thought. The residual traces 
which are left by pleasing or satisfying situa- 
tions form a basis for imaginative and other, 
more orderly, cognitive control. Visual, audi- 
tory, tactile, and similar residua are left both 
by the impressions which come from the object 
or situation and by the manipulation and control 
which are attempted. According as experience 
has been more or less extensive, traces may be 
deposited giving a basis for a series of connected 
images or a train of thought. 

Primary^ secondary and acquired interest. In 
the more elementary stages of development, sim- 
ple objects or situations which have already 
excited feelings of pleasure, satisfaction, etc., 
will, upon representation, arouse ideas and 
images of the terminal moment towards which 
control of them will lead. Continued experience 
with similar situations will form the basis of 
numerous associations. The mere idea or name 
may then excite interest in so far as the idea or 
name is linked with associations which are con- 
nected with a pleasurable terminus. An object, 
which, when controlled, manipulated, etc., yields 
pleasure or satisfaction, will leave traces which 
will constitute the basis of further meaning. 
When the object is again seen, it will excite such 



218 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

traces and become clothed with an interest by 
virtue of the residua which have been stamped in 
and intensified by the feehngs which the previ- 
ous control has excited. Since the object and its 
control yielded pleasure and satisfaction on one 
occasion, the probability is that it will do like- 
wise upon another. Hence it has fuller meaning 
and is looked upon with interest. As experience 
with such an object widens, the object may suc- 
ceed in rousing images and ideas of pleasing and 
satisfying moments to which it is able to lead. 
A child's interest in a toj^ a mechanic's interest 
in a tool, an adult's interest in a scene connected 
with his childhood days, — all are of this charac- 
ter. In the negative the same holds true. If 
a situation or object has yielded dissatisfaction or 
pain, it, too, will revive a meaning, or images or 
ideas which repel instead of attract. That the 
burnt child dreads fire is well known. 

Should there be a gap between the present 
situation and a desired terminus, both terminus 
and present are studied, worked over, recon- 
structed, and tried in various ways so that the 
ideal means to bridge the gap may be evolved. 
The end to be attained, the object desired, the 
situation to be controlled, or what not, may be 
removed either in place, in time, or in both. Thus 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEKEST 219 

an individual may desire to get at the contents 
of a trunk, or case, or may try to recover an 
object which has been thrown over a fence or 
across a stream. The present situation under 
immediate control will be tested and examined, 
means will be sought to bridge the gap between 
the present and the future moment to be realised, 
connections will be worked out, and so on. The 
individual, for example, may seek information of 
others, may think of implements, may try to 
recollect similar occasions, may search the vicin- 
ity for material, and so on. Interest centers 
in the means because of their connection with 
the end in view. 

The end may be a potential one and may 
exist in the more or less distant future. At least 
there is a strong belief in the possibility of its 
existence and realisation. Such an end may be 
ideally constructed out of present experience, 
from contact with others, reading, observation, 
and the like. The individual may then desire 
realisation of his aim, and may set about con- 
structing means and molding the present for the 
purpose. He may desire a position of responsi- 
bility, promotion, material goods, or what not. 
He may plan further study and work, may con- 
sider the advisability of joining societies and 



220 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

organisations, etc. We may have a whole chain 
of connected aims, one leading to the other, and 
each realised by a series of means. Thus, A 
may lead to B, B to C^ C to D^ and so on. A 
student, for example, may be interested in his- 
tory. If history means for such a person possi- 
ble intellectual occupation, passing of pleasant 
hours, etc., the interest is primary, or perhaps 
acquired. But his interest in history may be 
secondary. He may see in history the possibility 
of passing an examination. Passing of the ex- 
amination may mean possession of a certificate 
or degree. Possession of a certificate or degree 
may mean eligibility for another examination, 
and so on, to some ultimate realisation, as, ap- 
pointment to a position, winning of honors, etc. 
This state of affairs can be paralleled in business, 
in the home, and elsewhere. Interest in means 
which aid in realising any of the ends in view is 
then secondary. Many of our interests are of 
this nature. 

In the course of the various processes leading 
to the ultimate realisation, none of the means 
may have had any interest or pleasure, per se. 
In fact, some of them may have been repelling. 
During the process of attention to these means, 
however, sufficient facts, etc., may remain to 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEREST 221 

form the basis for the appreciation of new mat- 
ter. One who studies history from altogether 
ulterior motives may thus come to find an interest 
in it as such. So, too, habits of attention to the 
means may persist and interest in them remain. 
One who is accustomed to doing work for a con- 
siderable length of time will finally come to feel 
unrest and disturbance if such work is not forth- 
coming. To regain ease and quiescence, the 
work will again be desired, and an effort will be 
put forth to obtain fuller control. Interest of 
such a sort is acquired. It differs from primary 
interest only in the fact that it is the result of 
secondary interest, the residua of the latter. 

§ IV. EXPLANATION 

The rise of interest is dependent upon the 
instincts and feelings of the individual, and upon 
the copies and selection of the social group in 
which the individual moves. The former aspect 
has been treated in the preceding chapter. The 
importance of social guidance and selection re- 
mains to be considered. The models which are 
before an individual give form and direction to 
his instinctive behavior, and social approval aids 
in stamping in some reaction to the exclusion of 
others. The difference between the interests of 



222 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

the slum child and those of his more refined 
brother are due to a great extent to the difference 
in the environments which surround them. 
There is no reason why the slum child should 
mangle his pronunciation, slip in a patois and 
slang, and develop interests which are not sanc- 
tioned by society at large, other than the stifling 
environment which surrounds him, and the in- 
diiference of the school, which looks upon his 
acquirements as good enough for him, and which 
often passes him through its walls, illiterate, un- 
refined, slovenly, and ignorant, but good at heart 
and anxious to absorb the best, if only he is 
given the opportunity to come within its influ- 
ence. Let 'crap shooting' and profanity be the 
'style' in a neighborhood, and innocent children 
will follow copy without intending harm or 
knowing the significance of their actions as 
judged by more cultured individuals. Let the 
school accept slovenly expression, and careless, 
dirty work, and it gives its approval to results 
which even the child himself would not hand in, 
if trained for a time by proper guidance and 
selection. In a statistical study of the influ- 
ences which determined the pursuits of English 
men of science, Galton found the following: 



IDEAL ASPECT OF INTEEEST 223 

Number Due to 

59 Innate tastes (mem: not necessarily hereditary). 
11 Fortunate accidents. It will be noticed that these 

generally testify to the existence of an innate 

taste. 

19 Indirect opportunities and indirect motives. 
24 Professional influences to exertion. 

34 Encouragement at home of scientific inclinations. 

20 Influence and encouragement of private friends 

and acquaintances. 
13 Influence and encouragement of teachers. 
8 Travel in distant regions. 
3 Residual influences, unclassed.^ 

No doubt, for individuals who are exception- 
ally efficient, or exceptionally depraved, envi- 
ronment can not do as much as in normal cases. 
Such exceptional cases, however, are compar- 
atively few. For the great mass of normal 
individuals, and for the extensive level of com- 
mon, every-day actions and interests, environ- 
ment plays the most important part.^ 

* Galton, Francis, English Men of Science, 149. 

®0n the influence of individual and social imitation, see: 
Baldwin, J. M., Ment. Dev. in the Child and the Race, and 8oc. 
and Eth. Int. Bagehot, Walter, Physics and Politics. Tarde, G., 
The Laws of Imitation, Eng. tr. by Elsie Clews Parsons. Ross, 
E. A., Social Psychology. See also the discussion in the previous 
chapter, sections III and IV, and in Chapter III. 



CHAPTER VIII 

RECAPITULATION 

§ I. DEFINITION OF INTEREST 

Interest may be briefly defined as follows: 
Interest is an attitude taken towards a 
situation, and characterised (1) by motor 
tendencies and feelings of expectation, 
anticipation, and strain, (2) by meaning 
implicit in the situation or by free images 
and ideas, and (3) by a reference of atti- 
tude and ideal content to some future con- 
dition of the self. 

The kinds of interest are, (1) curiosity, (2) 
expectation, and (3) conscious desire. 

Curiosity Expectation 

Situation present and Situation future and 

partially known partially unknown 

Desire 

Situation future and 

known 
Definite effort towards 

realisation 
Ideal construction of 
means to lead to end 

224> 



EECAPITULATION 



225 



§11. OUTLINE OF ASPECTS 



Motor 


Ideal 


Motor attitude felt as 


Simple awareness in 


innervation, tendency. 


which the meaning is 


or strain 


merged in the pre- 




sentation 




Single image or idea of 




a future moment 




System of ideas present 




as a disposition and 


> 


evolved as a series 



§ III. OUTLINE OF STAGES 

The stages of interest are (1) primary, (2) 
secondary, and (3) acquired. 

Primary Secondary 

A present situation leads Interest inheres in means 



directly to feelings of 
pleasure, satisfaction, 
etc. 



because of their con- 
nection with a future 
situation which is to 
result in feelings of 
pleasure, satisfaction, 
etc. 



Acquired 

Means which led to a 
pleasurable situation, 
and which roused a 
secondary interest, 
hold interest on their 
own account 



15 



226 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

The direction of interest in all its stages may 
be positive or negative. 

Positive Negative 

The future situation is The future situation is 
one of pleasure, satis- one of pain, dissatis- 
faction, etc., and is faction, etc., and is 
desired avoided 

It is to be noted that when the direction of inter- 
est is positive, the means under immediate con- 
trol may be pleasurable or painful. So long as 
the terminus is pleasing, satisfying, etc., the 
interest is positive. In negative interest, the 
terminus is displeasing or dissatisfying, and is 
avoided. In such a case, the less of two evils 
may be selected. 

§ IV. INTEREST AND ATTENTION 

In the more advanced stages of development, 
interest and attention run together, but at first, 
attention is somewhat in the lead. Conditions 
other than interest are able to impel attention. 
Thus, intensity of impression and feelings of 
pleasure-pain can excite primary or instinctive 
attention. Interest is not then in evidence. But 
if such instinctive attention results in pleasure, 
ease, satisfaction, and the like, it lays a basis of 
interest in such a situation. When the situation 



RECAPITULATION 



227 



is again present there will be a felt tendency to 
go through the process which resulted in the 
former feelings of pleasure or satisfaction. In 
more advanced stages, the interest and the atten- 
tion are concomitant. Interest is then the im- 
pelling aspect, and attention the controlling. 

INTEREST ATTENTION 

Motor Motor 

Felt attitude which tends Accommodations and ad- 



to realise a future 


justments for more 


state 


perfect control of a 




situation 


Ideal 


Ideal 


Mental construction of 


Mental reinforcement of 


the future moment to 


incoming impressions. 


be realised, existing 


and ideal guidance of 


as fringe of meaning. 


motor control 


simple awareness, or 




as free ideation 




Objective 


Objective 


Value or worth 


Clearness and distinct- 



ness 



§V. INTEREST AND FEELING 

The following characteristics of interest and 
feeling may be noted: 



Interest 

Reference to the future 
Motor attitude 
Feeling of anticipation 
and strain 



Feeling 

Existence in the present 
Passive moment 
Feeling of pleasure-pain, 
satisfaction, ease, etc. 



228 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

§ VI. INTEREST AND EFFORT 

Intejest impels effort. In that an individual 
is before a situation which will, when properly 
controlled, lead to a state of pleasure, ease, and 
the like, effort will be put forth. There need be 
no immediate pleasure or satisfaction in such 
control, so long as the final realisation is more or 
less pleasurable and satisfying. If the terminus 
is more painful than the present situation, effort 
will likewise be shown, so long as such effort 
leads from the repelling situation. In such a 
case there is no positive gain, and the terminus 
is one only in a negative sense. Whatever can 
be associated with an end which is felt to have 
worth and value will tend to stimulate effort. If 
the means, in addition to leading to a pleasurable 
end, possess an interest of their own, greater 
effort will be put forth. Effort is nothing more 
than the subjective and felt aspect of motor 
control in the process of attention. 



PART III 
EDUCATION 



Part III 
Education 



CHAPTER IX 

ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 

§ I. THE GIVEN SITUATION 

It seems almost self-evident that, to be atten- 
tive, the child must have something definite to 
which it can attend. The situation, moreover, 
to which the child is supposed to attend, must be 
controlled in full by the pupil, if attention is to 
be wholly present. This implies (1) that the 
child must be able to react to the object or situa- 
tion in a sensorimotor manner, and (2) that such 
reaction and control must correspond in some 
degree to the character and intent of the situa- 
tion in question. Practical classroom examples 
will further elucidate these truths. 

Arithmetic. In primary work, each child should be 
busy measuring desk, books, paper, etc., under guidance 
of the teacher. Colored paper should be folded, cut, 
measured, and marked by each child. Each child should 
be asked to measure the rooms at home, to count the 
windows in the classroom, to find out by his own efforts 
how many feet or inches high he is, and the. like. In 

231 



232 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

number drill, each child should be given a chance to 
recite individually. The children should be called up in 
rows, and each one should be rapidly asked the answer 
of a problem of the type given. Written work on 
type problems and examples might be required. In 
spatial measurements, space should be measured, and 
not verbal descriptions given by the teacher. In 
counting, actual concrete series should be counted, 
and not barren, meaningless, verbal symbols. In inter- 
mediate and grammar grade instruction, a similar policy 
should be followed with greater emphasis on the abstract 
aspects of the problems. Thus, explanation of problems 
which involve spatial measurements, necessitates con- 
struction of rooms, fields, etc., in paper, measurements 
worked out on such paper, etc. Fractions should be 
taught by having each pupil break up unitary wholes 
into equal parts. Drill on such work requires the solution 
of a number of problems by the pupils. Such problems 
should be of the type explained. The visual presentation 
on the blackboard is good, but it neglects the motor 
phase of attention. 

Spelling. In writing, one sees the words as one writes 
them. Spelling should therefore be taught with em- 
phasis upon the visual and the motor. Write ten or 
fifteen words on the board, in columns of five or ten. 
Let the children write them on paper. Then require 
the pupils to look at the words, look again with emphasis 
on difficult combinations of letters, close their eyes and 
try to see the words. Do this once or twice. Have them 
repeat the spelling of the words out loud, three or four 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 233 

times. Finally, let the words be written two or three 
times each. If the children are tested, it will be found 
that very few will fail. Those who miss should be 
required to write the misspelled words five or ten times 
each. This method can be applied to the memorising of 
lists of any kind, of outlines, of tables in arithmetic, 
etc. It should replace the monotonous concert recitation 
still in evidence in many classrooms. 

Reading. Content. If possible, the meaning of a 
piece should be acted out by each pupil. The child 
should be asked to do what the piece sets forth. He 
should be required to draw out his own interpretation 
of what the selection describes. He should try to con- 
struct the situation according to the directions given. 
In addition, pictures, diagrams, etc., should be shown 
by the teacher. Last of all should come the verbal 
explanation and lecturing still too common in the 
classroom. 

In teaching the meaning and use of words, a similar 
method should be followed by the teacher. In addition, 
the teacher should require the pupils to make some at- 
tempt to use the words in their daily conversation, in 
their compositions, etc. They should be urged to read 
periodicals, papers, etc., for the purpose of finding sen- 
tences which have the words in question. They should 
keep clippings and paste them in blank books. They 
should so construct sentences that the meaning of the 
word is made clear from the context. Such masters of 
style, as Addison, Irving, etc., should be expounded, and 
an analysis of their method of explaining words by 



234 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

context, should be made by the teacher. Each pupil 
should be required to find other words which will take 
the place of the word selected. In reading, the pupil 
should be required to find other words which will take 
the place of the one before him in the text. 

Reading. Expression. Each pupil should be allowed 
to read. Teach only five or ten pupils at a time and 
give the rest busy work of some kind, as writing of 
spelling words, tables, etc., illustration in color of some 
story, test or examination. In teaching proper expres- 
sion to the group under immediate supervision, repeat 
the word aloud, show the pupil how to shape the lips, 
place the tongue, and the like. Write the more difficult 
words and phrases on the board and let each pupil read 
them. Correct any errors in enunciation or pronunci- 
ation. Give words similar to the ones on the board. 
Show cards on which such words are written, and let 
each child repeat the word as soon as it is shown. Since 
reading involves the rapid expression of visual symbols 
in articulatory terms, the words and sentences should be 
read off at once without the interpolation of explana- 
tions, reasons, or what not. Let each child then read a 
sentence or so from the reader or the blackboard. Stop 
any slovenly expression and call upon the child again if 
he fails to give the proper expression. 

GeograpTiy. If the surface of the country is explained 
let each child model a map in clay or papier mdche.^ See 

^Papier mdchS is readily made. Take a newspaper, and cut 
it into small pieces. Let it soak over night in water. Have a 
child pound it for some time with a stick or stone. Mix a little 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 235 

that the child makes an actual slope, tableland, mountain, 
etc. If the pupil makes a mountain like a stone fence, 
show him that the water will not drain off and form a 
river, but will collect in a lake or swamp. Connect 
such models with the proper names. Thus, tell the 
pupil to make his eiver basin slope more, or his Car- 
pathian Mountains higher, or his Sicily more trian- 
gular and so on. 

Let each pupil classify the industries, materials used, 
etc. Let him collect labels on cases, cans, etc. Have him 
draw or trace a map and paste on it the different pro- 
ducts. Let him indicate with colored lines the lands 
to which the products go. Have him construct lists and 
outlines of such products, exports, imports, and the like. 
Require him to map out railroad lines, steamship routes, 
etc., and name them, indicating also the cities which are 
railroad centers, ports, etc. Have him construct lists 
of the same. 

Let the pupils study the location and names of cities, 
rivers, etc., in the manner above suggested for spelling. 
Draw an outline map on the blackboard. Mark and 
name the important cities. Let the pupils visualise the 
map and the marks which indicate the cities. Let the 
children copy the outline, etc., on paper. A rough 
draft will do. Rub out the names on the board, leaving 
the marks indicating the cities. Call up the pupils, one 
at a time, and have each child point to the map when 
the name of the city is called out. Let the pupils in 

flour-paste or mucilage with the pulp. Press this on the board 
with the thumb. To insure adhesion, coat the board Mdth mucilage 
or glue. 



236 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

their seats watch and compare the answer with the maps 
before them. Do this in the case of rivers, lakes, etc. 
Test the pupils by having them write the name of the 
city, etc., when you point to the map, call out the 
location, etc. 

History/. Let the children act out some historical 
incident or event. Assign parts to a group of children, 
and let the rest write a report on the characters, what 
they say, the surroundings, etc. Let each pupil make 
a drawing of the event, with the necessary names, dates, 
etc. Have the pupils construct outlines which indicate 
a series of events in logical connection. Place an outline 
on the blackboard and have each pupil expand it in 
composition form. Require each pupil to take his book 
and trace a series of connected events, as, the events 
leading to establishment of the British Parliament, the 
territorial expansion of the United States, etc. Let him 
give the names connected with such events, the men as- 
sociated with them, the dates, and so on. Assign each 
pupil to some topic, and let him read up on it and report 
to the class. Post his report, or a summary of it, on a 
bulletin board. Let him read it to the class. Mimeo- 
graph it and give each pupil a copy of it. Have each 
pupil draw the necessary maps, with names, dates, etc. 

Science. Let each pupil do the experiment and make 
his own apparatus, if possible. Crude material will do 
for the simpler experiments. The old-fashioned 'ob- 
ject lesson' is being replaced by laboratory work. Do 
not require an inference until a number of experiments 
has been performed, or until an intensive study has 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 237 

been made of a few experiments. Thus, in the study 
of the action of gravity, the different tests, as, weight 
of bodies, pendulum, etc., all lead to a similar inference. 
This inference should not be asked for till the whole 
series of experiments has been made. 

Nature study. Let each child plant a seed in a small 
flower pot. Let every pupil handle a flower, or a twig, 
or the fur of an animal, or what not. Urge every pupil 
to bring in specimens, as stones, wood, seeds, etc. Let 
each class have a small space in the school garden for its 
own use. Let each class have one or two boxes filled 
with earth for the same purpose. Take the children on 
excursions to the zoo, the park, the green fields, and the 
streams in the neighborhood. Use pictures only when 
it is impossible to allow the child to handle the objects 
in question. Verbal descriptions are almost worthless. 
If the class is to study rainfall, let the children look out 
of the window. Point out the clouds. Show the direc- 
tion of the wind by hanging a streamer outside. Wait 
for a rainy day if necessary. Reenforce such instruc- 
tion by requiring the pupils to draw what they have 
seen or handled. Let them draw the growing plant in 
color. Let them outline the passage of water through 
its forms, as, river, vapor, clouds, rain, etc. Each pupil 
should be required to do this. 

Grammar. Let each pupil work on type sentences, 
parts of speech, etc. Have every child construct a num- 
ber of sentences like the model. Have him fill in blanks. 
Let him diagram according to model. Call up the class, 
one row at a time, and have each pupil give the kind 



238 ATTENTION AND INTEKEST 

of a sentence required, some word used properly, and 
the like. Definition should come last of all. At times 
it is unnecessary. Use the method of multiple sense 
appeal which is suggested in the case of spelling. 

The above directions are by no means complete. 
They are simply suggestive of numerous other 
devices which any teacher can outline. The fol- 
lowing points should be kept in mind: (1) Let 
each child have some object or situation under 
his immediate control. (2) Let each child react 
towards such situation in a sensorimotor manner, 
i.e., let him visualise it carefully, handle it, de- 
scribe it verbally, etc. (3) Facilitate such con- 
trol by having material ready, lessons carefully 
planned, and so on. 

§ II. FACILITATION 

1. Simplicity. The work in each subject 
should be carefully mapped out by the teacher. 
A logical outline should be made, including, (1) 
a series of connected topics, causally arranged, 
(2) references to standard authorities, and (3) 
possible correlations with other subjects in the 
grade. In addition there should be a daily plan 
of the work to be covered during the day. Such 
a plan should be brief, and should have (1) defi- 
nite topics in each subject which is to receive 



[ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 239 

attention during the day, (2) type sentences, 
problems, experiments, etc., and (3) mention of 
the method to be used in each of the subjects, as, 
development, drill, or what not. The daily plan 
will ensure some degree of unitary simplicity, 
and the term plan some degree of sequential 
simplicity. In addition, the principal of the 
school should confer with the teachers and unify 
the work of the school in the diiFerent subjects. 
The emphasis should be about the same in the 
subjects all along the line. Where one class is 
receiving instruction in one phase of arithmetic, 
for example, and another class of the same grade 
is doing work very much different, the pupils of 
these classes wiU hardly be ready to assimilate 
instruction in the next grade where perhaps an- 
other scheme of instruction is pursued and a 
different emphasis is placed. The daily plan is 
now recognised as a necessity, and its absence as 
an indication of laxity, and generally of ineffi- 
ciency. When the teacher will give helter-skelter 
instruction with intermissions of vituperation, the 
pupils will not be in the best condition to attend 
to the matter before them. Too many points are 
flashed before them, there is no persistent pre- 
sentation of a single topic, and often the things 
which they should not learn are carefully at- 



240 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

tendea to, e.g., errors, wrong forms, incorrect 
models, etc. The teacher should carefully cut 
up the subject matter into small portions, and 
use every aid possible to make it clear, as, graphic 
outline, illustration, blackboard summary, etc. 
He should hold himself down to the topic at 
hand and should patiently present it in as many 
ways as possible. For this, careful preparation 
is necessary, 

2. Quality of the impression. Sharp, clear, 
and clean-cut presentation should be the general 
rule in teaching. If the blackboard is used, it 
should be washed with ink, or ink and water, to 
ensure a good background. The writing should 
be firm and neat. No children should be allowed 
to write matter which is to be studied or copied 
by the others. Important parts should be written 
in brightly colored chalk, as, orange, yellow, 
green, or red. Emphasis might also be secured 
by underlining or boxing in colored chalk. If 
pencil or pen is to be used, the ink should be free 
from dirt, the pencils long and properly sharp- 
ened. In speaking, the teacher should be careful 
to enunciate distinctly, and to express himself 
carefully and accurately. A hurried, careless, 
slovenly manner of expression tends to make the 
children careless and inattentive. These direc- 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 241 

tions may seem trivial and unnecessary, but they 
often make the difference between efficiency and 
inefficiency in some subjects. Note how the 
pupils will look at the board if there is a neatly 
colored outline map upon it, or a carefully 
arranged summary. One can hardly blame a 
pupil for looking out of the window or under 
the desk if he has before him a grey, dusty board, 
or a board hurriedly erased and having upon it 
scraps and fragments of a former presentation 
which did not come fully beneath the board rub- 
ber. The same is true in other aspects of 
instruction. 

3. Time. Give the pupil time to absorb what 
is being presented. Allow some time, however 
small, for each step in the lesson, from the pre- 
liminary signal to the end of the lesson. Give 
the signal, 'Ready,' and see that each pupil is 
ready. Present one topic, and make reasonably 
sure that it has been properly assimilated. Pause 
a moment, and quiz half a dozen pupils, some 
poor, some medium. Do not hurry along, and 
do not rest satisfied if one or two pupils can 
answer. Do not fret and fume if the results of 
the first presentation are poor, if over half the 
class misses, if the per cents range from ten to 
thirty. Give the children time to learn. Present 

16 



242 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

the same topic again, with perhaps slight addi- 
tions. Take for granted that children learn very 
slowly, that if too much is forced upon them, 
they become distracted, or coolly indifferent. 
Remember that about one half of the new matter 
presented is forgotten after the first half hour, 
two thirds in nine hours, three quarters after six 
days, and four fifths after a month. Time must 
be taken for development, time for review, and 
time for drill. 

4. Preadjustment. Give some signal, as, 
a tap or a word, to indicate that the lesson is to 
follow. Moreover, see that the signal is obeyed. 
Do not pass from one lesson to another without 
having all the pupils prepared to take up 
the new work. If the one lesson is a writing 
lesson, and the following is a geography or 
a history lesson, give some such directions as 
the following: Pencils down. Pass papers. 
Books away. Take modeling boards. And so 
on. Pause slightly after each direction. See 
that it is followed. If the directions are given 
in sharp, military fashion, and are followed by 
a slight pause, they impel attention and set the 
pupil in a business-like frame of mind. If neces- 
sary, make sure that each pupil is in the proper 
attitude for the new work, by passing rapidly 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 243 

through one or two of the side aisles. If the 
teacher is satisfied to talk ahead with a large 
percentage of the children playing under the 
desk, writing, finishing up the previous lesson, 
and the like, much of his work will be wasted as 
far as the attention of the pupils is concerned. 
Fixation should be facilitated by having a defi- 
nite model before the pupils, by calling their 
attention to specific aspects of it, by pointing to 
the parts which are essential, and so on. A series 
of rapid questions will aid in holding the children 
in the attitude of attention. Note the external 
signs of preadjustment, as, head erect, eyes look- 
ing at the object before them, body leaning 
slightly forward, etc. Do not continue the 
lesson if the majority of the pupils are not in 
the right attitude of fixation. 

5. Ideal reinfoiicement. Have the black- 
board covered with work as soon as the pupils 
enter the room. Examples in arithmetic or 
grammar, a colored map, colored designs in 
drawing, spelling list, etc., should be on the 
board before the pupils come. This work should 
be connected with the lessons of the day. Home 
work, on the other hand, should not be given till 
the close of the day. Pupils can not be expected 
to attend so closely to the lessons of the day if 



244 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

they are thinking of problems, etc., to be done 
at home. Often pupils will be found surrepti- 
tiously doing such home work under the desk. 
In the course of instruction, use the experiences 
of the child and the objects of the immediate 
environment in making clear the topics of the 
lesson. The streams in the gutters, the lake in 
the park, the stones of the school or other build- 
ings, the clothes worn by the children, the foods 
which they eat, the labels and marks on manu- 
factured articles, etc., should be used as examples 
in the presentation of topics in geography, etc. 
The words in spelling should be selected from 
the exercises in reading, from the expressions 
used in arithmetic and grammar, from the les- 
sons in geography and history, from the vocabu- 
lary which the children ought to have, etc. Such 
lists should be revised each term. Composition 
should be based on work of the term which has 
been already covered, on experiences of the chil- 
dren, on activities which are within the child's 
understanding and which are taking place under 
his eyes, and the like. The teacher should try to 
find the mental background which will best 
serve to hold the topic in the focus of attention, 
which will best enable the presentation to per- 
sist. New topics which have little connection 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 245 

with the experiences or the environments of the 
children will have little chance to continue in the 
centre of the attentive field. 

6. Practice. Practice is necessary to enable 
ideal backgrounds to persist, and to make 
habitual the motor coordinations and adjust- 
ments which are necessary in attention. The rate 
of forgetting^ is so rapid that constant drill is 
necessary. The rules for driU are as follows: 
(1) Present one topic. Allow for review by 
giving a few types of the kind already pre- 
sented, but let the body of the lesson deal with 
the topic which is to be drilled upon. (2) Secure 
repetition. Let every pupil recite. Call the 
class up in rows and have each child answer. 
Give a number of problems or examples of the 
same kind, and let the children work them. Let 
the children use blank maps and fill in railroad 
centres one day, industries another, etc., connect- 
ing one with the other. Present similar topics 
in a series of lessons. Check the problems or 
types on which most of the children fail, and give 
them again. Use the method of multiple sense 
appeal in fastening essential facts in the differ- 
ent subjects. (3) See that such repetition is 

'See Myers, C. S., A Text-Book of Experimental Psychology ^ 
Ch. XIII. 



246 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

properly distributed. If the children do not 
seem able to grasp the point of the lesson at the 
end of half an hour, do not continue for an hour 
or two more. Simplify the work still more, wait 
for a day or two and try again. Give intermis- 
sions so that the children can rest. If two hours 
are to be spent on some topic, divide the time 
into half or three-quarter hour periods and 
spread them over several days. (4) There should 
be a mass of material at hand, and such material 
should deal with the same topic. The blackboard 
should be covered with work. Numerous speci- 
mens should be on hand. Copies of designs 
should be ready for distribution. Whatever be 
the subject, the teacher should see that sufficient 
material is ready for illustration, use, or what 
not. No teacher - should be satisfied to 'know 
about what he is going to teach,' or to 'carry the 
day's work in his head.' (5) Appeal to each 
pupil through as many of the senses as possible. 
Let the children visualise, articulate, express 
themselves manually, listen to the presentation 
or explanation, etc. Let each sensory impres- 
sion be followed by some form of motor ex- 
pression. Let the children do many examples. 
Let them draw or model many maps. Let them 
answer in composition form when writing on 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM. 247 

historical or geographical topics. Let them 
synopsise and expand stories which have been 
illustrated, read, and explained. The teacher 
should plan work to fit the different senses, and 
such appeals should deal with the same topics.^ 

7. Fatigue and pause. So that the children 
should not be unnecessarily fatigued by the day's 
work, some consideration should be given to the 
order in which the subjects are presented. Con- 
struction of a proper daily schedule involves ( 1 ) 
the physiological rhythm to which the child is 
subject, (2) the relative difficulty of the sub- 
jects, (3) the length of the period during which 
instruction is to continue, (4) the distribution 
of periods over the days of the week, (5) the 
days of the week most favorable to work, (6) 
the age and maturity of the children, and (7) 
general factors, as, the weather, the rhythm of 
energy during the months of the year, etc. 

(a) Daily rhythm. The periods of the day 
most favorable to work are the former half of 
the morning and the latter half of the afternoon. 
The morning period again is better than the 
afternoon period. The best period of the day 
is from nine to eleven in the forenoon. The 

* See Arnold, F., Text-book of School and Class Management, 
l:Ch. V, §111, 3. 



248 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

second best period is after two in the afternoon. 
The end of the morning session and the begin- 
ning of the afternoon session are most unfav- 
orable to heavy work.* 

(b) Relative difficulty of subjects. In the 
order given, the following subjects put the chil- 
dren to the greatest strain: (1) exercises which 
involve muscular effort, as gymnastics, (2) ab- 
stract and formal subjects, as arithmetic, gram- 
mar, etc., and (3) thought work and exercises 
which involve the memory. The kinds of work 
which require less energy are, { 1 ) manual work, 
as drawing, construction, etc., (2) oral work, 
and (3) work which involves content and objec- 
tive phases rather than formal, as geography, 
history, literature, etc. No subject which puts 
the child to a special strain should be given at 
the end of the morning or the beginning of the 
afternoon, and no two such subjects should fol- 
low each other. 

(c) Length of periods. The length of a les- 
son should vary between fifteen minutes and an 
hour or so. Subjects which require less energy 
should be given longer periods than subjects 
which are more difficult. Forty minutes is con- 

* See O'Shea, M. V., Dynamic Factors in Education, 286. 
Bagley, W. C, The Educative Process, 340. 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 249 

sidered a normal period for older children, and 
fifteen or twenty minutes one for younger chil- 
dren. A succession of short periods should be 
avoided if possible, as this tends to give a 
choppy effect to the day's work and to produce 
restlessness. 

(d) Difference in days. Monday and Friday 
are not so good as the other days of the week. 
Less difficult subjects should be given on these 
days. Days which immediately precede or fol- 
low holidays, etc., are also not good for difficult 
work. 

(e) Maturity of the children. The age and 
maturity of the children will condition the length 
of the periods, the number of intermissions for 
physical exercise, the length of time for recess, 
and the general method of instruction which is 
to be followed. There should be a two-minute 
setting-up exercise at the end of each lesson. 
For younger children, there should be a ten or 
fifteen minute period for play and exercise at 
about half -past ten, and a similar period after 
two. Primary periods of instruction should run 
from fifteen minutes to half or three quarters of 
an hour. Grammar or intermediate periods 
should vary between three quarters of an hour 
and an hour and a half. 



250 ATTENTION AND INTEREST, 

(/) Weather influences. Sultry days and hot 
days are not favorable to heavy work. The 
beginning of a snow storm makes the children 
restless. Days which are cold and clear are fav- 
orable to good work. On unfavorable days the 
teacher should not take up advance work in the 
difficult subjects. He should review, drill upon, 
or test old work, give written exercises, etc. 
Extra effort should be put forth on such days. 

(g) Seasonal rhythm. The best work can 
be done during the period from December to 
April. The heaviest work should therefore be 
done during the last two months of the first term 
and the first two months of the second term. 
During the months of June, July, and August, 
and to a certain extent during the spring months 
the children show greater excitement and more 
numerous tendencies to irresponsible action. 
Crimes, popular outbursts, riots, revolutions, 
etc., usually break out during the Spring and 
Summer months.^ 

8. Hunger and underfeeding. Where un- 
derfeeding is evident, i.e., where children are 
underweight, not so much should be expected of 

■^See Hall, G. S., Adolescence, 2:47. Leffingwell, Albert, 7»- 
fluence of Seasons upon Conduct. See also Arnold, F., Sch. and 
CI. Man., 2:Ch. I, § IV, 4. 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 251 

them. If possible underfed or improperly fed 
children should be given a glass of milk and a 
biscuit or roll in the morning, at twelve, and at 
the close of the day. Such food should be given 
at cost price. From a nutritive point of view- 
soup is not worth much. As Barr points out, 
'statistics show that 10 ounces of bread and 1 
pint of skimmed milk equal in nutriment a diet 
composed of 8 ounces of soup, 2 ounces of beef, 
2 ounces of potatoes, 1 ounce of turnips, 4 
ounces of bread, I/2 ounce of butter, and 1 cup 
of coffee containing 1 ounce of milk and % 
ounce of sugar.'® 

9. Obstructed breathing. If the child 
shows signs of obstructed breathing, he should 
be examined and sent to the school physician. 
The teacher should also see that the room is 
properly ventilated 

10. Weak mindedness. Instruction of weak 
minded children should use concrete means of 
presentation in all the subjects. Arithmetic 
should be taught by means of scissor work, paper 
folding, colored blocks, etc. Processes should 
be simple and should, if necessary, be reduced 
to counting. Counting, in fact, should be used 
to test the more difficult processes. In language 

« Barr, M. W., Mental Defectives, 170. 



252 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

work, pictures, illustrations, dramatisations, 
social activities, modeling in sand, construction 
work, etc., should be made the basis of oral and 
written composition, spelling, etc. Only one 
simple topic in any subject should be presented 
at a time. Lesson periods should be very short. 
They may vary between ten minutes and an 
hour. There should be intermissions in which 
games are played, social activities conducted, 
'make-believe' occupations carried on, and the 
like. The surroundings of the children should 
be used as a basis of these different activities. 

11. Extraneous stimulation. As soon as 
the pupil enters the room he should see on the 
blackboard a general outline of the work of the 
day. Examples, map, etc., should be on the 
board. During the lesson the teacher should 
see that only such material as is necessary 
for the work is under the pupil's immediate con- 
trol. The lesson should run on without inter- 
ruptions. There should be no halts due to 
missing pencils or pens, empty ink wells, etc. 
Before the work of the day begins, the teacher 
or a monitor should arrange such supplies as 
will be needed during the day. The room should 
be tidy. Whatever decorations are used, they 
should be neatly placed. There should be a gen- 



ATTENTION IN THE CLASSROOM 253 

eral cleaning-up at least once a week. Loose 
paper, material, etc. should not lie on the win- 
dow sills, or desks. The directions given above 
for preadjustment will be found useful in shut- 
ting out sources of extraneous stimulation.^ 

^ Among others, see the progressive School Reports of W. H. 
Maxwell, New York, J. H. van Sickle, Baltimore, and the Child 
Study Reports of F. W. Smedley, D. P. MacMiUan, and F. G. 
Bruner, Chicago. A similar point of view has been worked out 
by W. E. Grady, in 'Pragmatic Concepts, and the Educational 
Process,' New York. The above chapter will probably be further 
amplified as portion of a volume on general method in instruction. 



CHAPTER X 

INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 

§ I. POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE INTEREST 

There is nothing very mysterious or uncanny 
in the development of interest in the classroom. 
In its simplest terms, the problem is somewhat 
as follows: Arrange the instruction and disci- 
pline in such a manner that whatever the pupil 
does ends in pleasure, satisfaction, ease, or 
quiescence. If the activity itself does not so end, 
then produce pleasure, satisfaction, ease, or 
quiescence by artificial means. It is a mistaken 
idea that the child should do his work at school 
merely because the teacher says so, or that some 
high and mighty virtue should impel him to do 
the work. The teacher himself asks for some 
recompense, and we find very few individuals 
who wiU put forth continued effort on the mere 
say-so of another. The aim of the work in part 
is the development of obedience to authority, of 
respect for the true, the good, and the beautiful, 
etc., but the realisation of this aim calls for 
laborious effort on the part of the teacher. 
Many of us, in spite of the efforts of the school, 

264> 



INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 255 

are still painfully lacking in many of the virtues 
which we too readily take for granted in the 
child. We must begin from lower levels, and 
appeal to bases, which, from a more advanced 
stage, might seem somewhat crass and selfish. 

If the work itself does not end in pleasure, 
satisfaction, etc., and if the teacher does not use 
artificial means to secure a pleasurable or satis- 
fying result, then the work becomes a drudgery 
which is done to avoid some greater evil, as, de- 
tention, nagging, corporal punishment, and the 
like. The principal, the parent, the truant offi- 
cer, and the police court are then called into 
service to browbeat parent and child, and by 
threat of fine or imprisonment, to coerce the child 
to attend to his work at school. Many cases of 
truancy will always be found, no matter what 
the school can do either positively or negatively. 
But the artificial conditions which exist, in which 
the children consider the school somewhat as a 
necessary evil, would hardly be found if the 
school made a systematic attempt to use positive 
instead of negative interest. There is no inher- 
ent virtue in doing a task because the completion 
of such a task will relieve the child from coercion, 
punishment, or what not. By association the 
child will not be led to care for the work. If the 



256 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

task itself is disagreeable, it will have little power 
of its own to impel the child to continue it, or to 
attempt it again. No matter how necessary the 
work may be, if the child does not see the neces- 
sity of it, and if the efforts put forth lead to 
nothing positive in the way of pleasure, ease, 
satisfaction, etc., the pupil will not feel impelled 
to strive along similar lines. 

Where the children have proper homes, and 
parents who are interested in their welfare, 
much of such satisfaction, pleasure, etc., as is 
needed in the development of interest, is obtained 
from relatives, and friends who look after the 
child. But where the children do not have such 
congenial surroundings, where families of four 
or five live in two or three rooms, where the boys 
and girls roam the streets as preferable to close 
and stuffy rooms, the home can not be depended 
upon to support the school in the development 
of interest in school studies. If the school does 
not use positive means of developing interest, 
such negative means as beating, detention at 
court or truant school, etc., are called upon 
properly to subdue the children. 

The use of positive means does not preclude 
earnest effort, or hard work. The point is not 
that the work should be made easy, or that every- 



INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 257 

thing which is done in the classroom should be 
pleasurable, but that whatever is done by the 
children, no matter how difficult or disagreeable, 
should end in feelings of pleasure or satisfaction. 
Children will be found the last to shirk hard work 
which leads to a satisfying or pleasurable ter- 
minus. In this sense interest does not conflict 
with effort, but rather is a means of calling forth 
the greatest amount of effort. 

§ II. APPROVAL AND DISAPPROVAL 

1. Exhibition of work. When the child has 
put forth effort on written or similar work, it 
should be hung up on the walls of the classroom, 
if only for a short time. The teacher should 
arrange picture wire, burlap, cardboard, etc., so 
that arithmetic papers, drawings, construction 
work, and the like can be exhibited. If the child 
sees that his efforts are thus appreciated, he will 
feel satisfied and pleased, and will strive all the 
more on following occasions. If his work is not 
quite what it ought to be, refusal to hang it up 
will have the effect of disapproval. Every 
means of approval which the teacher uses can 
thus become a means of disapproval. 

2. Commendation. The teacher should not 
hesitate to praise good work whenever he sees it. 

17 



258 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

He should hold up a good paper before the class 
and publicly approve the child who has done it. 
such expressions as 'Good,' 'Very fine,' 'Ex- 
cellent,' and the like should be used again and 
again. A child will feel impelled to work harder 
if he sees that his eiForts receive recognition. 
On the other hand, continual faultfinding, vitu- 
peration, and nagging will discourage him, and 
finally make him indifferent and callous. 

3. Mark. Most of the written work of the 
pupils, as drawings, compositions, test papers, 
etc., should be marked by either the teacher or a 
pupil, and returned to the children. If any 
papers are thrown away, they should not be 
destroyed in the presence of the children. Cred- 
its might be given for neatness, high per cents, 
etc. Weekly or monthly ratings in four or five 
groups of subjects should be posted where all 
the children can see them. Honor rolls, gold- 
star charts, etc., are some of the devices by which 
attention can be called to special merit. If the 
work is not quite up to the mark, withholding of 
approval will act as disapproval. Demerits 
might also be given to check careless work.^ 

* For a full discussion of the means of approval and disap- 
proval, see, Arnold, F., Sch. and CI. Man., l:Ch. XI. 



INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 259 

§ III. SELF- ACTIVITY 

Wherever possible the child himself should be 
allowed to do the work demanded by the lesson. 
Let the pupil fold paper to illustrate fractions, 
or arrange splints in groups for counting, or cut 
out cardboard to illustrate surface measurement 
of a room, etc. Let him model a map in clay 
or papier mdche, cut it out in colored paper, draw 
and color it, fill in cities, rivers, etc., paste on 
samples of products, form lists and outlines, and 
the like. Let him give sentences in grammar, 
fill in blanks with the proper forms, diagram, 
etc. Let him construct apparatus for experi- 
ments in science, bring in specimens for nature 
study, and so on. In addition, cap his efforts 
with pleasure and satisfaction by publicly prais- 
ing his work, exhibiting it, marking it, and the 
like. Do not force him to sit quiet doing noth- 
ing, while words, words, words, are being show- 
ered upon him. The least thing which will 
relieve the children from the too common verbi- 
age of the classroom will stimulate and excite 
them to put forth effort. 

§ IV. IMITATION 

To guide the self -activity of the children 
along definite channels, models should be shown 



260 ATTENTION AND INTEREST 

them. The best model or copy to stimulate the 
activity of the children is an actual, concrete 
situation, of the kind which they are to manipu- 
late. Let them count real money, or paper 
money. Let them buy and sell as men buy and 
sell outside of the school, with a pupil as store- 
keeper, and other children as customers. Let 
the pupils measure the walls of the classroom, 
estimate the number of square feet in the surface 
of the walls, etc. Bring in real leaves and flow- 
ers for design work. Let the children handle and 
test the kinds of stone, wood, fur, cloths, etc., 
which form the subject matter for geography, 
nature study, or other lessons. If it is not pos- 
sible to present concrete situations, use the next- 
best means of presentation, as, colored illustra- 
tions or photographs, diagrams, outlines, and 
the like. Magazines now reproduce in color 
many interesting views, and each teacher can 
readily collect a number of such views. Pupils, 
too, can be asked to get such pictures. History, 
geography, literature, reading, etc., will acquire 
fresh interest by such means. 

For review or drill, as in arithmetic or gram- 
mar, a problem should be written on the black- 
board and its solution indicated below. In 
addition, the teacher should work out the same 



INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 261 

problem, step by step, in the presence of the chil- 
dren. They should then be set to work a number 
of similar problems. The children who work most 
neatly and correctly should be commended, and 
their papers should be exhibited. Interest in 
most of such drill work will be of a secondary 
nature. No doubt the children have some natural 
interest in number work as such, but this is 
rather flitting and unreliable. To ensure the 
regularity and persistence which are necessary 
in drill work, secondary interest must be em- 
ployed. The same holds for other subjects, as, 
grammar, spelling, and the like. 

§ V. MULTIPLE SENSE APPEAL 

In the presentation of a new lesson and in 
drill on an old one, appeals should be made to 
as many of the senses as possible. The pupil 
should see pictures, maps, outlines, models, etc. 
He should be allowed to visualise them for a 
definite period. Essential aspects should be 
pointed out to him, and he should be urged to 
look, close his eyes, revive the impression, and 
look again to see how correctly he has repro- 
duced the visual presentation. He should then 
model, draw, write, etc. Oral expression might 
be required. After the sensory appeals have 



262 A'TTENTION AND INTEREST 

been made, the pupils might be required to ex- 
press themselves in composition form either 
orally or in writing. Commendation, exhibition 
of work, etc., will increase whatever satsfaction 
or pleasure the work itself has produced. 

§VI. INTEREST AND THE CURRICULUM 

Experimental tests and empirical observation 
in the classroom will show that pupils diif er in 
natural ability and talent. Some will be found 
strong in one group of subjects, others in an- 
other group of subjects. Pupils will differ in 
their ability in the same subject. A pupil who 
is good in division, is not necessarily good in 
addition or multiplication. One good in gram- 
mar or composition may be found weak in spell- 
ing or reading. We should not strive, therefore, 
to do the impossible, to level all differences, and 
to create an equal interest in all the subjects in 
all pupils. The most we can do is to ask for 
minimum requirements in such subjects as are 
required by society at large, and to allow the 
pupils to develop their natural talents along 
special lines. By approval, guidance of self- 
activity, presentation of the proper models, etc., 
we can stimulate pupils to exert effort in all the 
subjects to a minimum degree, and in special 



INTEREST IN THE CLASSROOM 263 

subjects to a maximum degree. The minimum 
should be the same for all pupils, but the maxi- 
mum will diifer according to the ability and 
inclination of the special pupil concerned. Clas- 
sification and promotion should not be based on 
an average, but on minimum proficiency in most 
of the subjects, and greater proficiency in one or 
two in which the pupil shows greatest interest. 
The problem of the teacher is to develop 
natural tendencies into definite interests. The 
bases to which he must appeal are the instincts 
and feelings of the child. Appeal to the child's 
interest is possible only after some interest has 
been already developed. The child does not come 
with interests ready-made to which appeal can 
be made. Rather, he comes with blind and in- 
choate tendencies, wild strivings, formless in- 
stincts, which the teacher must direct and shape. 
By presentation of models, by guidance of the 
child's self -activity, by capping his efforts with 
satisfaction, the teacher fashions the instincts of 
the pupil, shows him that his efforts are worth 
while, and develops interests which can be of 
service in the direction of further effort.* 

^ Compare DeGarmo, C, Interest and Education. 



INDEXES 



INDEX OF NAMES 



Amberg, E., 65. 
Angell, J. R., 50, 136. 
Arnold, F., 20, 101, 129, 191, 
247, 250, 258. 

Bagehot, W., 223. 

Bagley, W. C, 248. 

Baldwin, J. M., 20, 135, 150, 

162, 164, 165, 187, 223. 
Barnes, E., 169. 
Barr, M. W., 251. 
Beddard, a. p., 12, 173. 
Bettmann, S., 62. 
BiNET, A., 136, 169. 
Birch, L. G., 44, 78. 
BoNSER, F. G., 136. 
Bradley, F. H., 179. 
Breese, B. B., 78. 
Bruner, F. G., 253. 
Bryant, S., 101. 
burgerstein, l., 154. 

Campbell, W. C, 146. 
Calkins, M. W., 101, 179, 187. 
Cattell, J. M., 47, 51, 56, 101. 
Chamberlain, A. F., 168. 
Chwistek, L., 31. 
Claparede, E., 101. 
Clark, J. B., 188. 
Compayre, G., 20. 
Cron, L., 40, 52, 75. 

Darlington, L., 78. 
Darwin, C, 162. 
Dearborn, G. V., 49. 



Dearborn, W. F., 141. 
De Garmo, C, 112, 263. 
Delabarre, E. B., 136. 
Descartes, R., 26. 
Dewey, J., 187. 
Dietze, G., 41. 
Dwelshauvers, G., 55. 

Eckener, H., 31. 
Edkins, J. S., 12, 173. 
Ehrenfels, C. von, 187. 

FiNzi, J., 40. 
Fortlage, K., 26. 
Frazer, a., 27. 

Galloway, E. C, 31. 
Galton, F., 223. 
Gordon, K., 46. 
Grady, W. E., 253. 
Griffing, H., 35, 53. 

Hall, G. S., 250. 
Hamilton, W., 27. 
Hammer, B., 31. 
Heinrich, W., 31, 139. 
Henmon, V. A. C, 51. 
Herbart, J. F., 96. 
Heumann, G., 65. 
Hill, L., 12, 173. 
Hobhouse, L. T., 162. 
Howell, W. H., 91, 108, 111, 

125, 172. 
Htjey, E. B., 141, 157. 
Hylan, J. P., 31, 38, 41, 65. 



267 



268 



INDEX OF NAMES 



James, W., 20, 134, 162, 164, 

170. 
Jastrow, J., 145. 
Jevons, W. S., 188. 
JoDL, F., 27. 
JuDD, C. H., 140, 175. 

Kafemann, R., 73. 

KlRKPATRICK, E. A., 162. 
Kleinkjtecht, H., 40, 77. 
KoHN, H. E., 179. 
KozAKi, N., 27. 
Keaepelin, E., 40, 52, 65, 75. 
Keiebig, J. C, 187. 
Kbohn, W. O., 41. 
KrELPE, O., 27. 

Lange, N., 149. 
Leffingwell, a., 250. 
Lehmann, a., 31. 
LiKDLEY, E. H., 65, 141. 
Lipps, T., 187. 
LoEB, J., 162. 
LoTZE, R. H., 26. 
Lough, J. E., 27, 51, 101. 

McAllister, 140, 175. 
MacDougall., R., 136, 151. 
McDouGALL., W., 83, 106, 107, 

118, 179. 
McGamble, E. a., 136. 
MACLEOD, J. R., 12, 173. 
Mac Millan, D. P., 253. 
Mabbe, K., 31. 
Marshall, H. R., 20. 
Martitts, G., 55. 
Maxwell, W. H., 253. 
Meinong, a. von, 187. 
Mentz, p., 136. 
Messer, a., 150. 



Messmer, O., 54. 
Meumakk, E., 136, 154. 
Mill, J., 152. 
Morgan, L., 49, 162. 
Moyer, F. E., 44, 78. 
Munsterberg, H., 27, 57, 103, 

146, 149, 165, 187. 
Mum, W., 15. 
Myers, C. S., 81, 245. 

Natrac, J. P., 178. 
Netolitzky, a., 154. 

O'Shea, M. v., 154, 248. 

Pace, E., 31. 
Pembry, M. S., 12. 
PiLLSBUEY, W., 27, 32, 34, 178. 
Pryee, W., 20, 198. 

Reis, J., 75. 
Rivers, W. H. R., 65. 
RoEEiCH, E., 178. 
Ross, E. A., 223. 

Seashore, E. C, 32. 

Serol, M., 179. 

Shand, a. F., 179. 

Shinn, M. W., 196. 

SiDis, B., 171. 

Slaughter, J. W., 32. 

Smedley, F. W., 253. 

Spikdler, F. N., 49. 

Steele, W. M., 140, 175. 

Stevens, H. C, 136. 

Stricker, S., 149. 

Stout, G. F., 20, 132, 151, 165, 

187. 
Stumpf, C, 27, 187. 
Sully, J., 187. 



INDEX OF NAMES 



269 



Swift, E. J., 78. 

Talbot, E. B., 44, 78. 
Tarde, G., 223. 
Taylor, R. W., 32. 
Thompson, H. B., 50, 136. 
Thorndike, E. L., 13, 101, 163. 
TiTCHENER, E. B., 13, 27, 32, 

33, 81, 83, 112, 178, 187. 
Trautscholdt, M., 101. 

TSCHERNING, M., 138. 

Vak Biervliet, J. J., 136. 
Vait Sickle, J. H., 253. 



Vaschide, N., 136. 
VoGT, R., 75. 

VOLKMANN, W., 187. 

Waller, A. D., 109, 
Warner, F., 154. 
Weygandt, W., 59, 66, 70. 
WiERSMA, E., 32, 
WiESER, F. von, 188. 
Woodworth, R. S., 165. 
WuNDT, W., 20, 27, 96, 101, 

ZONEFF, P., 136. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



Accommodation, 138. 

Acquired interest, 202, 221, 225. 

Activity, 259. 

Adaptation, 54. 

Age, 53, 84, 249. 

Apperceptive attention, 120. 

Appetition, 183, 204. 

Approval, 257. 

Arithmetic, 231. 

Arrest, 43, 84. 

Assimilative attention, 120. 

Assimilation, 96, 111, 120. 

Association, 99, 100, 113, 128, 
134. 

Attention, defined, 176, interest 
and, 226, outline of aspects, 
176, outline of conditions, 178, 
outline of stages, 177. 

Attitude, motor, 133, 149, 157, 
168, 183, 185, 192, 204, 225. 

Aversion, 204. 

BUckpunkt, 26. 

Cerebral level, 108, 118, 125, 

126, 133. 
Circulation, 137. 
Clearness, 25, 80, 87, 88. 
Cohesiveness, 132. 
Commendation, 257. 
Complexity, 45, 84. 
Complication, 96, 111. 
Comprehensiveness, 132. 
Conation, 183, 192. 
Consciousness, study of, 5. 



Copy, 260. 

Credits, 258. 

Curiosity, 188, 190, 211, 224. 

Curriculum, interest and, 262. 

Daily program, 247. 
Deliberation, 101, 115, 124, 170. 
Desire, 189, 190, 212, 224. 
Disapproval, 257. 
Distinctness, 25, 80, 87, 88. 
Distraction, 43, 75, 80, 86, 252. 
DriU, 245. 

Effort, feeling of, 102. 

interest and, 228, 257. 
Emotion, 50, 130. 
Environment, 223. 
Expectation, 189, 190, 212, 224. 
Extraneous stimulation, 75, 86, 
252. 

Facilitation, 43, 84, 105, 238. 
Fatigue, 58, 60, 61, 85, 153, 160, 

171, 247. 
Feeling, 48, 186, interest and, 

206, 227. 
Field of attention, 34, 40, 41. 
Fixation, 139. 
Fluctuation, 30, 81, 90. 
Focus, 15, 18. 
Free revival, 98, 113, 210. 
Frontal level, 110, 127. 
Fusion, 96, 111. 



Geography, 234. 



270 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



271 



History, 236. 
Hunger, 70, 250. 

Ideal, 8, 13, 15, 96, 111, 119, 
128, 208, 225. 

Ideomotor action, 162. 

Imitation, 259. 

Individual differences, 262. 

Inhibition, 152. 

Instinct, 194. 

Instinctive attention, 119, 162. 

Interest, attention and, 226, 
curriculum and, 262, defined, 
224, effort and, 228, 257, feel- 
ing and, 206, 227, outline of 
aspects, 225, outline of stages, 
225. 

Intensity, 27. 

Junction, point of» 6. 

Margin, 15. 

Means, 123. 

Mental defectives, 73, 251. 

Model, 260. 

Motor attitude, 133, 149, 157, 
168, 183, 185, 192, 204, 225. 
control, 150, 158, diffusion, 
141, innervation, 145. 

Multiple sense appeal, 261. 

Nature study, 237. 
Negative interest, 198, 201, 203, 
326, 254. 

Object, 3, 6, 15, 18, 231. 
Objective, 6. 

Obstructed breathing, 72, 251. 
Organic changes, 136, 154, 166. 
Organisation, 132. 



Pain, 48, 194. 

Pause, 64, 86, 247. 

Periods of recitation, 248. 

Persistence, 29, 80, 87, 88. 

Pleasure, 48, 194. 

Positive interest, 200, 203, 226, 

254. 
Possible, 10, 14. 
Powers of attention, 42. 
Preadjustment, 54, 85, 242. 
Primacy, 130. 
Primary interest, 199, 217, 225. 

Quality of impression, 50, 240. 

Reading, 140, 233, 234. 

Real, 6, 12. 

Recency, 130. 

Recognition of letters, words, 

etc., 47. 
Reflex arc, 104, 125. 
Reinforcement, 56, 85, 243. 
Repetition, 130, 131, 245. 
Respiration, 137. 
Rest, 64, 247. 
Retinal rivalry, 78. 

School subjects, 248. 
Seasonal rhythm, 250. 
Secondary attention, 121. 
Secondary interest, 199, 218, 

225. 
Self-activity, 259. 
Sense appeal, 261. 
Sensory changes, 138, 156, 167. 
Simplicity, 45, 84. 
Spelling, 232. 
Subject-object relation, 3, 15, 

16, 18. 
Summation of stimuli, 51. 



272 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS 



Time, 52, 84, 241. 
Truancy, 255. 

Underfeeding, 70, 250. 
Unity, 34, 82, 93, visual, 34, 
auditory, 40, tactile, 41. 



Value, 187. 
Vasoconstriction, 137. 
Vividness, 130. 
Voluntary attention, 121, 164. 

Weakmindedness, 73, 86, 251. 
Weather, 250. 



FELIX ARNOLD'S 

Text Book of School and Class 
Management cioth 12 mo., $1.23 net. 

"The book enters into every detail and every phase of school 
instruction and management and points out in kindly fashion 
the immense importance of a proper co-operation between prin- 
cipals and teachers in instruction, discipline and supervision. 
When it comes to consideration of the child it enters upon a 
deep psychological study and analysis, citing the different influ- 
ences operating upon the mind of the young and its inherent 
attributes, discussing the nature of conduct, the different tem- 
peramental traits of the child, the promotion of obedience, 
ambition and class spirit, vices and their best modes of correc- 
tion. The author closes his book with this wise admonition : 
'We complain of the conduct of the children in the school ; we 
cry out against their behaviour out of school, yet we send them 
forth like Noah's dove, without a light to guide them or a sup- 
port on which they can rest. The school should do its part in 
giving the child right ideals, proper habits and a firm moral 
basis which will enable him to pass judgment on his actions. 
The problem is one which can not be ignored.' " 

— San Francisco Chronicle. 

" 'School and Class Management' is the best work on the sub- 
ject that I have ever read. Every teacher should study it and 
to every principal it will afford profitable reading." 

— ^J. M. WiLLARD, Principal of Philadelphia N. S. for Girls. 

"I believe the book is one that should be in the library of 
every principal. Its treatment of the relation of principal and 
teachers, the duties of principal and the treatment of conduct 
as given in this book are such as to impel one's interest and 
can not but be read with profit. It seems to me that the book 
should have a place in training class work." 

— Mr. J. W. Reed, Principal High School^ Dansville, N. Y. 

"It is a most comprehensive work, teeming with practical 
suggestions toward character-building and doing right for right's 
sake. It shows deep reading on the part of the author. It 
shows more, a deep sympathy for children, for whom no con- 
scientious teacher feels that he can do enough. It shows ways 
and means leading to cheerful obedience on the part of a pupil 
to a teacher whose every word and action bespeak his love for 
the little ones." 
— Mr. John J. O'Reilly^ Principal P. S. No. 86, New York City. 



Published by 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 



ARNOLD. Felix. A Text Book of School and Class Management. 
Theory and Practice. Cloth. 12mo. xxii+409 paget. Index. $1.25 net. 

BAGLEY, William Chandler. Classroom ManatSement: Its Principles 

and Technique. By William Chandler Bagley, Superintendent of the 
Training Department, State Normal School, Oswego, N. Y. 

Cloth. 12mo. xvii+3S2 pages. $1.25 net. 

——The Educative Process. Cloth. 12mo. xix+3S8 pages. $1.25 net. 

BROWN, John Franklin. The American Hi^h School. By John Frank- 
lin Brown, Ph.D., formerly Professor in Education and Inspector of High 
Schools for the State University of Iowa. 

Cloth, xii+498 pages. 12mo. $1.25 net. 

CHUBB, Percival. The Teachinii of English. By Percival Chubb, Prin- 
cipal of High School Department.-Ethical Culture School, New York. 

Cloth. 12mo. xvii+411 pages. $1.00 net. 

COLLAR, George, and CROOK, Charles W. School Management and 
Methods of Instruction. By George Collar and Charles W. Crook, 
London. Cloth. 12mo. viii+336 pages. $1.00 net. 

CRONSON, Bernard. Methods in Elementary School Studies. By 

Bernard Cronson, A.B., Ph.D., Principal of Public School No. 3, Borough 
of Manhattan, City of New York. Cloth. 12mo. 167 pages. $1.25 net. 

——Pupil Self-Government. Cloth. 12mo. ix+107 pages. $.90 net. 

CUBBERLEY. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education. With 
Selected Bibliographies and Suggested Readings. By Ellwood P. Cub- 
berley. Second Edition, revised and enlarged. In two parts. 

Part I, v+129 pages, $1.50 net; Part II, xv+361 pages, $1.50 net. 
Complete in one volume, $2.60 net. 

DE GARMO, Charles. Interest and Education. By Charles De Garmo. 
Professor of the Science and Art of Education in Cornell University. 

Cloth. 12mo. xvii+230 pages. $1.00 net. 
— ^The Principles of Secondary Education. 

Fol. I, Studies. Cloth. 12mo. xii+299 pages. $1.25 net. 

Fol. II, Processes of Instruction, xii+200 pages. $1.00 net. 

Vol. Ill, Processes of Instruction. In press 

OUTTON, Samuel T. Social Phases of Education in the School and tha 

Home. By Samuel T. Dutton, Superintendent of the Horace Mann 
Schools, New York. Cloth. 12mo. ix+259 pages. $1.25 net, 

> 

DUTTON & SNEDDEN. The Administration of Puhlic Education in the 
United States. By Samuel Train Dutton, A.M.. and David Snedden, 
Ph.D. With an Introduction by Nicholas Murray Butler. Ph.D., LL.D, 

Cloth, viii+595 pages. Bibliography. Index. 12mo. $1.75 net. 

PITCH. SiK Joshua. Educational Aims and Methods. Lectures and Ad- 
dresses by Sir Joshua Fitch, late Her Majesty's Inspector of Training 
Colleges. Cloth, xii+448 pages. 12mo. $1.25 net. 

Lectures on Teaching. Cloth, xiii+393 pages. 16mo. $1.00 net. 

GRAVES. Frank P. A History of Education before the Middle A^es. By 

Frank Pierrepont Graves, Ohio State University. 

Cloth. 320 pages. Bibliography. $1.10 net. 

HALLECK, Reuben Post. The Education of the Central Nervous System. 

A Study of Foundations, especially of Sensory and Motor Training. By 
Reuben Post Halleck, M.A..(Yale). 

Cloth. 12mo. xii+258 pages. $1.00 net. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TKACHERS—Continued 



HANUS, Padl H. a Modern School. By Paul H. Hanus. Professor of the 
History and Art of Teaching in Harvard University. 

Cloth, llmo x+306 pages, $1.25 net, 

Educational Alms and Educational Values. By Paul H. Hanus. 

Cloth. 12mo. vii-i 221 pagtt. $1.00 net. 

HERBART, John Frederick. Outlines of Educational Doctrine. By 

John Frederick Herbart. Translated by Alex. F. Lange, Associate Profes- 
sor of English and Scandinavian Philology and Dean of the Faculty of the 
College of Letters. University of California. Annotated by Charles De- 
Garmo, Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Cornell University. 

Cloth. Large 12mo. xl+334 pages. $1.25 net. 

HORNE, Herman Harrell. The Philosophy of Education. By Herman 
Harrell^Horne, Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in Dart- 
mouth College. Cloth. 8vo. xvii+29S pages. $1.50 net 

The Psychological Principles of Education. By Herman Harrell Home. 

Cloth. 12mo. xiii+435 pages. $1.75 net. 

HUEY. Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedaioiy of Reading. By 

Professor Edmund B. Huey, of the Western University of Pennsylvania. 

Cloth, 12mo. xvi+469 pages. $1.40 nev 

JONES. Olive M.. LEARY, Eleanor G., and QUISK, Agnes E. Teach- 
ing Children to Study. The Group System applied. 

Illustrated. Cloth, viii+193 pages. 12mo. $.80 net. 

KILPATRICK, Van Evrie. Departmental Teaching in Elementary 

Schools. By Van Evrie Kilpatrick. 

Cloth. 12mo. xiii+130 pages. 16mo. $.60 net. 

KIRKPATRICK, Edwin A. Fundamentals of Child Study. By Professor 
Edwin A. Kirkpatrick, Principal of State Normal School, Fitchburg, Mass. 

Cloth. 12mo. xxi+384 pages. $1.25 net. 
MAJOR, David R. First Steps in Mental Growth. A Series of Studies in 
the Psychology of Infancy. By David R. Major, Professor of Education in 
the Ohio State University. 

Cloth xiv+360 pages. 12mo. $1.25 net. 

THE McMURRY SERIES Each, cloth, izmt. 

General Method. 

^The Elements of General Method. By Charles A. McMurry. 

323 pages. $.90 net. 

The Method of the Recitation. By Charles A. McMurry and Frank 

M. McMurry, Professor of the Theory and Practice of Teaching, Teach- 
ers College, Columbia University. xi+329 pages. $.90 net. 

Special Method. By Charles A. McMurry. 

Special Method in Primary ReadiniS and Oral Worii with Stories. 

vii+103 pages. $.60 net 

Special Method in the Reading of English Classics. 

vi+254 pages. $.75 net. 

Special Method in Lanifuaiies in the Ei^ht Grades. 

viii+192 pages. $.70 net. 

Course of Study in the EicSht Grades. 

Vol. I. Grades I to IV. vii+236 pages. J.7S net. 

Vol. II. Grades V to VIII. v+226 pages. $.75 net. 

Special Method in History. vli+ 291 pages. $.75 net. 

Special Method In Arithmetic. vii+ 225 pages. $.70 net. 

Special Method in Geography. xi+217 pages. $.70 net. 

— Special Method in Elementary Science. ix+75 pages. $.75 net. 

Nature Study Lessons for Primary Grades. By Mrs. Lida B. 

McMurry, with an introduction by Charles A. McMurry. 

xi+191 pages. $.60 net. 



A LIST OF BOOKS FOR TEACHERS— Co«^/««^^ 



MONROE, Paul. A Brief Course in the History of Education. By Paul 
Monroe, Ph.D., Professor in the History of Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University. Cloth. Svo. xviii+409 pagtt. $1.25 net. 

'^^ A Text-Book in the History of Education. 

Cloth, xxiii+277 Paget. 12mo. $1.90net, 

A Source Book of the History of Education. For the Greek and 

Roman Period. Cloth. xiii+5lS pages. Svo. $1.25 net. 

O'SHEA, M. V. Dynamic Factors in Education. By M. V. O'Shea. Pro- 
fessor of the Science and Art of Education, University of Wisconsin. 

Cloth. 12mo. xiii+320 pages. $1.25 net. 

— Lin^vistic Development and Education. 

Cloth. 12mo. xvii+347 pages. $1.25 net. 

PARK, Joseph C. Educational Woodworking for Home and School. By 

Joseph C. Park, State Normal and Training School, Oswego, N. Y. 

Cloth. 12mo. xiii+310 pages, illus. $1.00 net. 

PERRY, Arthur C. The Management of a City School. By Arthur C. 
Perry, Jr., Ph.D., Principal of Public School No. 8s, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Cloth. 12mo. viii+350 pages. $1.25 net. 

ROWE, Stuart H. The Physical Nature of the Child. By Dr. Stuart H. 
Rowe, Professor of Psychology and the History of Education, Training 
School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Cloth. 12mo. vi+211 pages. $.90 net 

SMITH. David E. The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. By 

David E. Smith, Professor of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia 
University. Cloth, xv+312 pages. Umo. $1.00 net. 

SNEDDEN AND ALLEN. School Reports and School Efficiency. By 

David S. Snedden, Ph.D., and William H. Allen, Ph.D. For the New 
York Committee on Physical Welfare of School Children. 

Cloth. 12mo. xi-\-183 p'S"- $1-50 net. 

VANDE WALKER, Nina C. The Kindergarten in American Education. 

By Nina C. Vandewalker, Director of Kindergarten Training Department. 
Milwaukee State Normal School. 

Cloth, xiii + 274 pages. Portr., index, 12 mo. $1.25 net. 

WARNER, Francis. The Study of Children and Their School Training. 

By Francis Warner. Cloth, xix+264 pages. 12mo. $1.00 net. 

WINTERBURN andBARR. Methods in Teaching. Being the Stockton 
Methods in Elementary Schools. By Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, of Los 
Angeles, and James A. Barr, Superintendent of Schools at Stockton, Cal. 

Cloth. xii+35S pages. 12mo. $1.25 net. 



Published By 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York 



i 



FEt- 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



iiJJi I'd 'i<:L{^ 



